Usual Choline Intakes Are Associated with Egg and Protein Food Consumption in the United States.
Level 4 - case-series / case-control
Cross-sectional population survey analysis (NHANES)
PubMed 28783055 · doi:10.3390/nu9080839
What was done
Researchers evaluated usual dietary choline intakes from foods across various US demographic subpopulations using the National Cancer Institute method applied to NHANES data (2009–2014 general participants and 2005–2014 pregnant women). They compared choline intake and the proportion meeting the Adequate Intake (AI) and Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) between consumers and non-consumers of eggs and protein foods (meat, poultry, seafood).
What was found
Only 8.03 ± 0.56% of adults and 8.51 ± 2.89% of pregnant women met the AI for choline. Young children (2–3 years, followed by 4–8 years) were the most likely to meet life-stage-specific AIs. Adults aged 19+ who consumed eggs had higher mean choline intakes than non-consumers (525 ± 5.17 mg/day vs. 294 ± 1.98 mg/day; p < 0.0001) and were substantially more likely to meet the AI (57.3 ± 1.45% vs. 2.43 ± 0.28%). Protein food consumption also significantly raised choline intake compared to non-consumption (345 ± 2.21 mg/day vs. 235 ± 8.81 mg/day; p < 0.0001), but did not substantially increase the percentage meeting the AI. No subpopulation exceeded the UL.
Why it matters
This study demonstrates that the vast majority of the US population, including pregnant women, falls short of recommended choline intakes from food alone, highlighting egg consumption as a primary dietary driver of adequate intake.
Limits
The analysis relies on cross-sectional survey data and self-reported dietary recalls, which are susceptible to recall bias and misreporting. Total sample size is not stated in the abstract, and the study did not measure circulating choline biomarkers or clinical deficiency outcomes.
Cited by
- supports Approximately 90% of pregnant women do not get enough choline during pregnancy.
- supports Approximately 90% of pregnant mothers do not consume enough choline.