HoldsUp

FoundMyFitness · 2020-04-14 · Rhonda Patrick (host)

COVID-19 Q&A #1 with Rhonda Patrick, Ph.D.

88 claims checked against research: 5 contradicted 3 overstated 5 needing context 60 supported 15 unverified

5

Contradicted by research

0:26:20Rhonda Patrick (host)contradictedmoderate

According to NHANES data, approximately 70% of the US population has vitamin D insufficiency and 28.9% has vitamin D deficiency.

"According to NHANES data, approximately 70% of the US has what is called vitamin D insufficiency, while a further 28.9% has low enough levels to be called deficient." (said at 0:26:20)

The speaker misinterprets the NHANES epidemiological findings. In an analysis of NHANES 2001–2010 data (n = 26,010 US adults) applying Endocrine Society cutoffs, the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency (<50 nmol/L) was 28.9% and the prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency (50 to <75 nmol/L) was 41.4%. Combined, approximately 70.3% of US adults had non-optimal vitamin D status (<75 nmol/L). The speaker conflated the combined total (~70%) with the rate of insufficiency alone, incorrectly asserting that 70% had insufficiency plus 'a further 28.9%' with deficiency.

0:51:54Rhonda Patrick (host)contradictedmoderate

Sitting in a hot bath submerged from the waist down for one hour increases heat shock protein levels.

"One study found that participants that sat in hot baths from their waist down for 1 hour were able to increase their heat shock protein levels." (said at 0:51:54)

Human trials investigating 1 hour of hot water immersion (at 39°C to 40°C) have failed to demonstrate an increase in heat shock protein (HSP) levels. In a controlled trial evaluating sedentary overweight adults immersed in 39°C water for 1 hour, acute monocyte intracellular HSP72 (iHsp72) expression remained unchanged (P = 0.57), and a 2-week repeated immersion protocol significantly reduced extracellular HSP72 concentrations by 17% compared with controls. Similarly, in individuals with type 2 diabetes undergoing 1-hour hot water immersion sessions at 40°C, repeated passive heating produced no significant change in plasma extracellular HSP70 levels.

1:04:08Rhonda Patrick (host)contradictedlow

Case reports indicate that intravenous vitamin C at doses between 1 to 10 g reduced hemolysis in patients with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency.

"Other case reports have indicated that when given a dose between 1 to 10 g, intravenous vitamin C actually reduced hemolysis." (said at 1:04:08)

The published medical literature contradicts the claim that intravenous vitamin C at doses between 1 and 10 g reduces hemolysis in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency. In patients with G6PD deficiency, erythrocytes lack adequate NADPH generation to regenerate reduced glutathione against oxidative stress; intravenous vitamin C acts as a pro-oxidant and is a well-established trigger of acute hemolytic anemia. Systematic reviews of published case reports indicate that vitamin C administration at doses starting as low as 1 g/day induces or exacerbates hemolysis in G6PD-deficient individuals, making G6PD deficiency a known contraindication rather than an indication for vitamin C therapy.

1:05:39Rhonda Patrick (host)contradictedhigh

Common clinical features in COVID-19 patients include low albumin levels, low lymphocyte numbers, low neutrophil numbers, and decreased percentages of CD8-positive T cells.

"A common clinical feature in COVID-19 patients is low albumin levels, low lymphocyte numbers, low neutrophil numbers, and decreased percentage of CD8-positive T cells." (said at 1:05:39)

While hypoalbuminemia (low albumin), lymphopenia (low lymphocyte count), and decreased CD8-positive T cell counts are well-documented clinical features in COVID-19 patients, neutrophil counts are typically normal or elevated (neutrophilia), particularly in severe disease. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses demonstrate that severe COVID-19 is characterized by significantly higher neutrophil counts (and an elevated neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio), rather than low neutrophil numbers.

1:10:57Rhonda Patrick (host)contradictedvery low

SARS-CoV-1 activates the NLRP3 inflammasome, triggering NF-κB and a cytokine storm in the lungs.

"SARS-CoV-1, the virus responsible for the original SARS outbreak, activates the NLRP3 inflammasome, triggering NF-κB and a cytokine storm in the lungs." (said at 1:10:57)

SARS-CoV-1 is known to stimulate NF-κB signaling and activate the NLRP3 inflammasome, contributing to the severe inflammatory cytokine storm observed during infection. However, the speaker describes the molecular sequence backwards: NF-κB activation functions as the upstream priming event (Signal 1) driving the transcription of pro-IL-1β and inflammasome components, which are subsequently processed and released upon NLRP3 inflammasome activation (Signal 2), rather than the NLRP3 inflammasome triggering NF-κB.

3

Overstated

0:15:37Rhonda Patrick (host)overstatedlow

Zinc inhibits the activity of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, thereby inhibiting the replication of RNA viruses.

"Zinc inhibits the action of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. That means it stops the replication of viruses." (said at 0:15:37)

The host states broadly that zinc inhibits RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) and thereby stops viral replication. In vitro cell-free and cell culture studies demonstrate that free zinc ions (Zn²⁺), particularly when paired with a zinc ionophore like pyrithione to shuttle zinc into cells, can directly inhibit the isolated RdRp activity of certain RNA viruses (such as SARS-coronavirus and equine arteritis virus) and impair viral replication in cell culture. However, claiming without qualification that zinc stops viral replication overstates the human clinical reality: free intracellular zinc concentrations required for RdRp inhibition in vitro are not readily achieved by dietary or supplemental zinc alone without an ionophore, and human clinical evidence does not establish that systemic zinc administration acts as a general antiviral cure by halting viral RdRp replication in vivo.

0:28:29Rhonda Patrick (host)overstatedmoderate

According to NHANES data, non-Hispanic Black Americans have a 24.6-fold higher prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and a 3.7-fold higher prevalence of insufficiency compared to non-Hispanic whites.

"According to NHANES data, non-Hispanic blacks have 24.6 times higher vitamin D deficiency and 3.7 times higher vitamin D insufficiency than non-Hispanic whites." (said at 0:28:29)

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data show that non-Hispanic Black Americans have substantially higher rates of vitamin D deficiency than non-Hispanic white Americans, but the claim that the prevalence is 24.6-fold higher is mathematically and epidemiologically inaccurate. In NHANES analyses (e.g., 2005–2006), the prevalence of vitamin D deficiency (defined as serum 25(OH)D ≤ 20 ng/mL) was 82.1% in Black adults compared to approximately 30–40% in white adults—a relative prevalence difference of roughly 2- to 3-fold. The claim likely confuses adjusted odds ratios (such as from multivariable regression models for severe deficiency thresholds) with relative prevalence rates, which cannot be 24.6 times higher given the baseline prevalence.

0:12:59Rhonda Patrick (host)overstatedlow

The macrolide antibiotic azithromycin exhibits antiviral activity against Ebola virus in animal models.

"Azithromycin is an antibiotic that has been shown to have antiviral activity against some viruses like Ebola in animal studies." (said at 0:12:59)

While azithromycin demonstrated in vitro antiviral activity against Ebola virus in drug repurposing screens and pseudovirus assays, animal model studies have failed to demonstrate reliable in vivo efficacy. In systematic in vivo testing, an initial mouse experiment suggested increased survival, but this effect failed to replicate upon repeated evaluation. Furthermore, azithromycin failed to improve survival in a guinea pig model of Ebola virus infection across multiple doses and caused drug-related toxicity. Consequently, stating that azithromycin exhibits antiviral activity against Ebola in animal studies overstates the evidence.

5

Needs context

0:12:25Rhonda Patrick (host)needs contextvery low

A 32-patient open-label clinical trial found 70% of hydroxychloroquine-treated COVID-19 patients cleared the virus by day 6 compared to 12.5% in the control group, and 100% cleared when combined with azithromycin.

"Nasopharyngeal samples were taken on day six of the treatment and it indicated that 70% of the hydroxychloroquine treated patients had cleared the virus compared to 12.5% in the group receiving standard of care. All of the patients who received both the antibiotic azithromycin and the hydroxychloroquine cleared the virus from their nasopharyngeal samples." (said at 0:12:25)

The host accurately summarizes the reported per-protocol findings of the early open-label, non-randomized trial by Gautret et al. (2020), which claimed that at day 6, 70% (14/20) of hydroxychloroquine-treated patients tested negative for SARS-CoV-2 compared to 12.5% (2/16) of controls, and 100% (6/6) receiving hydroxychloroquine plus azithromycin cleared the virus. However, critical context is required: the study suffered from severe methodological flaws, including non-randomized control selection and per-protocol exclusion of six treated patients (including three admitted to the ICU and one who died). Furthermore, the publication was formally retracted by the International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents due to ethical and methodological issues, and subsequent large-scale randomized controlled trials failed to replicate these benefits.

0:17:31Rhonda Patrick (host)needs contextvery low

In vitro studies found hydroxychloroquine to be three times more potent at inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 than chloroquine phosphate.

"Hydroxychloroquine was found to be three times more potent at killing the SARS-CoV-2 virus than chloroquine phosphate in cells in culture." (said at 0:17:31)

In an early in vitro and pharmacokinetic modeling study using SARS-CoV-2-infected Vero cells (Yao et al., 2020), hydroxychloroquine demonstrated greater in vitro potency against SARS-CoV-2 than chloroquine (EC50 of 0.72 μM vs 5.47 μM, roughly a 7.6-fold difference). The specific 'three times the potency' figure originated from physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) simulations of lung fluid drug concentrations comparing a proposed hydroxychloroquine dosing regimen against chloroquine phosphate (500 mg twice daily), rather than direct cell culture assay measurements alone. In vitro and pharmacokinetic modeling data provide very low certainty evidence regarding clinical efficacy or viral clearance in humans.

0:37:33Rhonda Patrick (host)needs contextmoderate

The ACE2 gene is located on the X chromosome, giving women two copies and higher expression levels than men.

"The ACE2 gene is located on the X chromosome. And so, women have two X chromosomes, and so, they have more copies of the ACE2 gene and therefore higher levels." (said at 0:37:33)

The ACE2 gene is indeed located on the X chromosome (Xp22.2), meaning females carry two copies (alleles) while males carry one. However, having two copies does not automatically result in doubled or uniformly higher ACE2 expression due to X-chromosome inactivation (XCI), which silences most genes on one female X chromosome for dosage compensation. Research indicates that ACE2 can partially escape XCI in specific tissues (such as alveolar type 2 cells) and its expression is also modulated by sex hormones like estrogen, leading to higher expression in certain cell types; however, circulating and tissue-level ACE2 expression varies considerably across human tissues, and circulating soluble ACE2 levels in humans are frequently reported to be higher in males.

0:48:53Rhonda Patrick (host)needs contextlow

Exposure to a 163°F sauna for 30 minutes increased heat shock protein levels by approximately 50% in healthy young men and women, with levels remaining elevated for up to 48 hours.

"Heat shock proteins have been shown to be increased by approximately 50% after 30 minutes in a 163° F sauna in healthy young men and women. Once activated, they can remain so for up to 48 hours." (said at 0:48:53)

Hyperthermic passive heat exposure, including sauna bathing, induces the cellular heat shock response and transiently increases heat shock protein (such as HSP70/HSP72) expression in human tissues and leukocytes. While narrative reviews and physiological studies confirm that heat stress triggers cytoprotective heat shock protein upregulation that can persist for 24 to 48 hours in cellular and animal models, human sauna trials show substantial variability in the magnitude of induction (dependent on baseline fitness, temperature, and tissue sampled) rather than a fixed ~50% elevation across healthy young men and women.

0:58:35Rhonda Patrick (host)needs contextmoderate

In the CITRIS-ALI trial, patients receiving intravenous vitamin C had fewer ventilator days, spent 7 days in the ICU compared to 10 days for placebo, and had hospital stays approximately one week shorter.

"Patients who received vitamin C had fewer ventilated days, spent less time in intensive care, 7 days versus 10, and their hospital stays were approximately 1 week shorter than those who received the placebo." (said at 0:58:35)

In the CITRIS-ALI randomized controlled trial (Fowler et al., 2019), intravenous vitamin C infusion did not meet its primary end points (change in SOFA organ failure scores, CRP, or thrombomodulin levels). Among exploratory secondary end points, patients in the vitamin C group did demonstrate significantly more ICU-free days to day 28 (mean difference of ~3 days, corresponding to roughly 7 vs 10 ICU days), more ventilator-free days, and more hospital-free days to day 60 (approximately 7 days / 1 week shorter hospital stay). However, because these were exploratory secondary outcomes among 43 tested end points without adjustment for multiple comparisons, the trial authors and standard evidence guidelines consider these findings hypothesis-generating rather than confirmatory.

60

Supported by research

0:03:42Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

A study of 2,143 pediatric patients with COVID-19 in China found children of all ages were susceptible with no significant gender differences.

"The study found that children of all ages were susceptible to COVID-19 with no significant gender differences observed." (said at 0:03:42)

A nationwide epidemiological study of 2,135 (often cited around 2,143 in early reporting) pediatric COVID-19 cases in China reported to the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention found that children of all ages were susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection, with no significant differences observed between sexes/genders.

0:04:03Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

Among symptomatic pediatric COVID-19 patients in China, 5% developed shortness of breath or hypoxemia and 0.6% progressed to acute respiratory distress syndrome or multi-organ dysfunction.

"Among symptomatic children, 5% had shortness of breath or low levels of oxygen in the blood, and 0.6% progressed to acute respiratory distress syndrome or multi-organ system dysfunction." (said at 0:04:03)

In a nationwide case series of 2,135 (or 2,143 reported) pediatric COVID-19 patients in China published early in the pandemic (Dong et al., Pediatrics 2020), over 90% had asymptomatic, mild, or moderate illness. Approximately 5% (5.2% to 5.9%) presented with severe disease characterized by shortness of breath/dyspnea or hypoxemia (oxygen saturation < 92%), and 0.6% (13 children) developed critical disease progressing to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), respiratory failure, or multiorgan dysfunction.

0:04:12Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

Infants younger than one year of age are more likely to develop severe COVID-19 illness than older children.

"Infants younger than 1 year were more likely to have severe illness compared to older children." (said at 0:04:12)

Published pediatric epidemiological data and systematic reviews confirm that while severe COVID-19 is uncommon across the entire pediatric population, infants younger than 1 year have a significantly higher risk of severe or critical illness and intensive care admission compared to older children.

0:04:29Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedhigh

The SARS-CoV-2 virus utilizes the ACE2 receptor to gain entry into host cells.

"SARS-CoV-2 virus exploits the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2, or ACE2 as it's called, receptor to gain entry into cells." (said at 0:04:29)

Extensive in vitro, structural, and molecular virology research confirms that SARS-CoV-2 utilizes angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as its primary functional host cell receptor for cellular attachment and entry.

0:05:48Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

A meta-analysis of 45 published studies found children accounted for 1% to 5% of diagnosed COVID-19 cases as of March 18, 2020.

"A meta-analysis including 45 published studies on COVID-19 found as of March 18th, 2020, children have accounted for about 1 to 5% of diagnosed COVID-19 cases." (said at 0:05:48)

A systematic review published in March 2020 by Ludvigsson (Acta Paediatrica) synthesized data from 45 scientific papers and letters published between January 1 and March 18, 2020, and confirmed that children accounted for 1% to 5% of all diagnosed COVID-19 cases during that early phase of the pandemic.

0:07:11Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedvery low

A clinical report of four infants born to COVID-19-positive mothers in Wuhan found no evidence of vertical transmission at birth.

"The report describes the clinical course of four live-born full-term infants born to pregnant women who tested positive for COVID-19 in Wuhan, China. Three of the four infants did not test positive for the virus. The mother of the fourth infant did not provide consent for testing." (said at 0:07:11)

A published case report by Chen et al. (2020) describes four full-term infants born to COVID-19-positive mothers at Union Hospital in Wuhan, China. Of the three infants whose parents consented to diagnostic testing, none tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 via RT-PCR or showed evidence of vertical transmission; the mother of the fourth infant declined consent for testing. As an uncontrolled case series of four mother-infant pairs, certainty is very low.

0:08:17Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedlow

A study of nine pregnant women with COVID-19 delivering via cesarean section found all amniotic fluid, cord blood, neonatal throat swab, and breast milk samples tested negative for SARS-CoV-2.

"Another study titled Clinical Characteristics and intrauterine vertical transmission potential of COVID-19 infection in nine pregnant women also found that there was no evidence of SARS-CoV-2 viral transmission from mother to child in nine births from COVID-19 infected women. All nine births were done by cesarean section in the third trimester. Amniotic fluid, cord blood, neonatal throat swab, and breast milk samples from six patients were tested for SARS-CoV-2, and all samples tested negative for the virus." (said at 0:08:17)

The speaker accurately describes the findings of a retrospective case series published in The Lancet (Chen et al., 2020). In the study of nine pregnant women with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 pneumonia who delivered via cesarean section in their third trimester, amniotic fluid, cord blood, neonatal throat swab, and breast milk samples collected from six patients all tested negative for SARS-CoV-2, showing no evidence of vertical transmission in this cohort.

0:09:10Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedlow

A study describing 38 pregnant women with COVID-19 and their newborns in China found no evidence of intrauterine or transplacental transmission of SARS-CoV-2.

"The report found there was no evidence of SARS-CoV-2 undergoing any type of intrauterine or transplacental transmission from infected pregnant women to the fetuses." (said at 0:09:10)

A March 2020 review by David A. Schwartz analyzed published data on 38 pregnant women with COVID-19 and their newborns in China. The study found no confirmed cases of intrauterine or transplacental transmission, with all tested neonatal specimens (including placentas, amniotic fluid, cord blood, and neonatal throat swabs) testing negative for SARS-CoV-2 by RT-PCR.

0:11:25Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedhigh

Antimalarial drugs can cause ventricular arrhythmias, QTc prolongation, and sudden cardiac death.

"Antimalarial drugs can cause ventricular arrhythmias, QTc prolongation, which can lead to fatal ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death, and other cardiac toxicity, which may pose particular risk to critically ill persons." (said at 0:11:25)

Published clinical evidence and pharmacological reviews establish that antimalarial medications—particularly quinoline derivatives and related agents such as chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, and halofantrine—can cause QTc prolongation, torsades de pointes, ventricular arrhythmias, and sudden cardiac death. A systematic review and meta-analysis of 47 studies (PMID 33772933) confirmed that hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine significantly increase the risk of QTc prolongation (RR 2.68 to 3.28), with documented instances of ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death. In critically ill patients or those with severe systemic illness (such as severe infections), the risk of cardiac toxicity and arrhythmogenesis is further magnified due to baseline metabolic, electrolyte, and myocardial disturbances.

0:13:14Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedvery low

An observational study of 80 COVID-19 patients treated with hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin showed clinical improvement in all but two patients, alongside reduced viral carriage.

"In a follow-up observational study including 80 patients receiving a combination of hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin, a clinical improvement was found in all but one patient, who was an 86-year-old patient who died and one 74-year-old patient that was still in intensive care. In addition to clinical improvements, reduction of the viral carriage from patients' respiratory samples was seen with hydroxychloroquine plus the azithromycin treatment." (said at 0:13:14)

The speaker accurately summarizes the findings of an uncontrolled observational study of 80 COVID-19 inpatients treated with hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin (Gautret et al., 2020). In that study, clinical improvement was reported in all participants except an 86-year-old patient who died and a 74-year-old patient who remained in intensive care, alongside a documented decrease in viral load and culture positivity over time. Because this was an uncontrolled, non-comparative observational study, certainty in the treatment's true causal efficacy is very low.

0:13:58Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

A pilot study from China found patients with mild to moderate COVID-19 had no significant difference in recovery rates when given hydroxychloroquine compared to controls.

"Another very small pilot study out of China found that patients with mild to moderate COVID-19 didn't have much difference at all in their recovery rates when they were given hydroxychloroquine." (said at 0:13:58)

A small randomized pilot trial conducted at the Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center in China evaluated hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) in 30 patients with moderate COVID-19. Patients were randomized to receive standard care with or without HCQ (400 mg/day for 5 days). By day 7, viral clearance (negative conversion rate) occurred in 86.7% (13/15) of the HCQ group compared to 93.3% (14/15) of the control group, a difference that was not statistically significant. Median time to viral clearance, time to temperature normalization, and radiological progression were also comparable between groups.

0:14:11Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedvery low

An observational study of 11 severe COVID-19 patients found no clinical benefit from combined hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin treatment.

"And yet another very, very small observational study including 11 people found no clinical benefit with the combination of hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin in patients with severe COVID-19 infection." (said at 0:14:11)

A prospective study by Molina et al. (2020) evaluated 11 consecutive patients hospitalized with severe COVID-19 who were treated with the combination of hydroxychloroquine (600 mg/day) and azithromycin (500 mg day 1, then 250 mg/day). The authors reported no evidence of rapid antiviral clearance or clinical benefit, with one patient dying, two requiring transfer to the intensive care unit, and one discontinuing therapy due to QT prolongation. Because this was a very small, uncontrolled observational case series of 11 patients, the certainty of the evidence is very low.

0:16:26Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedvery low

Chloroquine diphosphate acts as a zinc ionophore and increases intracellular zinc levels in cell culture.

"Chloroquine diphosphate was shown to be a zinc ionophore in a cancer model. The conclusion was that chloroquine is a zinc ionophore based on the detection of significantly elevated intracellular zinc levels when both zinc and chloroquine were added to cell culture medium." (said at 0:16:26)

A 2014 in vitro study in human ovarian cancer cells (A2780) demonstrated that chloroquine acts as a zinc ionophore. When chloroquine and zinc were added together, intracellular zinc uptake increased in a concentration-dependent manner (specifically accumulating within lysosomes) and enhanced cytotoxicity and apoptosis. Because this evidence is derived entirely from preclinical cell culture models, the GRADE certainty is very low.

  • supports: Chloroquine is a zinc ionophore. (PloS one 2014) · cited 242x in the literature
    "The present study investigated the interaction of zinc ions with chloroquine in a human ovarian cancer cell line (A2780). Chloroquine enhanced zinc uptake by A2780 cells in a concentration-dependent manner, as assayed using a fluorescent zinc probe... Thus chloroquine is a zinc ionophore, a property that may contribute to chloroquine's anticancer activity." (abstract, passage verified)
    pubmedfull study (doi)
0:19:58Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedvery low

Quercetin and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) function as zinc ionophores that transport zinc cations across cell plasma membranes independently of zinc transporters.

"Another in vitro study with cultured cells found that quercetin does seem to have zinc ionophore activity. So, polyphenols such as quercetin as well as EGCG can transport zinc cations across the plasma membrane independently of plasma membrane zinc transporters." (said at 0:19:58)

The speaker's statement accurately reflects published in vitro findings. In a 2014 study using mouse Hepa 1-6 cells and protein-free synthetic liposomes (Dabbagh-Bazarbachi et al.), researchers demonstrated that both quercetin and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) chelate and transport zinc cations across lipid bilayers in the absence of cellular zinc transporter proteins, functioning as zinc ionophores.

0:21:13Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedvery low

Type A antibodies found in individuals with blood group O or B can inhibit the interaction between SARS-CoV-1 and the ACE2 receptor.

"In the related SARS-CoV-1 virus, type A antibodies, as found in people with type O or type B blood types, can provide protection by inhibiting the interaction of the virus with the ACE2 receptor." (said at 0:21:13)

In an in vitro cellular model, natural human anti-A antibodies (present in individuals with blood group O or B) and monoclonal anti-A antibodies specifically inhibited the adhesion between the SARS-CoV-1 spike protein (synthesized with the A blood group antigen) and its ACE2 cellular receptor, supporting the mechanism of anti-A antibody-mediated inhibition.

0:23:16Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

A study investigating blood types and COVID-19 susceptibility found that blood group A is associated with a higher risk of infection, whereas blood group O is associated with a lower risk compared to non-O groups.

"In one study investigating the relationship between blood group and the COVID-19 susceptibility, it was found that people with blood group A have a higher risk for acquiring COVID-19 compared to non-A blood groups, whereas blood groups O have a significantly lower risk for the infection compared to non-O blood groups." (said at 0:23:16)

Early observational studies and subsequent systematic reviews have demonstrated an association between ABO blood types and SARS-CoV-2 susceptibility. Specifically, a foundational study of 2,173 COVID-19 patients and healthy controls found that individuals with blood group A had a significantly increased risk of infection compared to non-A groups, whereas individuals with blood group O had a significantly lower risk compared to non-O groups. Subsequent meta-analyses have consistently corroborated these findings.

0:26:30Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedhigh

The Endocrine Society defines 25-hydroxyvitamin D blood levels below 20 ng/mL as deficient and below 30 ng/mL as insufficient based on the threshold where parathyroid hormone begins to elevate.

"According to the Endocrine Society, blood levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D below 20 ng/mL is considered deficient, and less than 30 ng/mL is insufficient. The reason the Endocrine Society defines vitamin D deficiency as below 20 ng/mL, by the way, is because this is the cutoff point where parathyroid hormone levels, which are involved in calcium homeostasis, start to rise outside of healthy ranges." (said at 0:26:30)

The 2011 Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline explicitly defines vitamin D deficiency as serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] levels below 20 ng/mL (50 nmol/L) and vitamin D insufficiency as levels between 21 and 29 ng/mL (with optimal levels defined as 30 ng/mL and above). The physiological justification provided in the guideline and associated literature for these cutoffs is that parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels inversely correlate with 25(OH)D and begin to rise (triggering secondary hyperparathyroidism and increased bone resorption) when 25(OH)D drops below these thresholds, with PTH levels plateauing when 25(OH)D reaches approximately 30 ng/mL.

0:27:47Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

Obese individuals have greater than 50% lower bioavailability of vitamin D compared to non-obese individuals.

"Obese individuals have greater than 50% less bioavailability of vitamin D compared to non-obese individuals." (said at 0:27:47)

A landmark clinical investigation by Wortsman et al. (2000) evaluated the bioavailability of vitamin D from cutaneous synthesis (via whole-body ultraviolet radiation) and oral intake in obese (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m²) compared to age-matched lean control subjects (BMI ≤ 25 kg/m²). The study found that 24 hours after identical whole-body UV irradiation, the incremental increase in circulating blood vitamin D3 concentrations was 57% lower in obese subjects compared to non-obese controls, despite identical cutaneous synthesis capacity. This reduced bioavailability is attributed to the sequestration of fat-soluble vitamin D into enlarged adipose tissue compartments.

0:27:53Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

In the United States, obese adults have a 3-fold higher prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and a 1.9-fold higher prevalence of insufficiency compared to non-obese adults.

"Obese adults in the US had three times higher prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and 1.9 times higher prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency than non-obese adults." (said at 0:27:53)

A nationally representative cross-sectional study of 26,010 US adults from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 2001-2010) evaluated vitamin D deficiency (<50 nmol/l) and insufficiency (50 to <75 nmol/l). After adjusting for potential confounding factors, obese adults had a 3.09-fold higher prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and a 1.80-fold higher prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency compared to non-obese adults.

0:28:41Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

A CDC study of approximately 1,500 hospitalized COVID-19 patients across 14 US states found that 48% were obese and 33% were African American.

"A recent CDC study of about 1,500 hospitalized COVID-19 patients in 14 US states found that 48% of people hospitalized for COVID-19 were obese. ... According to the CDC, 33% of people hospitalized for COVID-19 were African American, who only constitute 13% of the US population." (said at 0:28:41)

A CDC COVID-NET surveillance report published in April 2020 analyzed 1,482 patients hospitalized with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 across 14 US states in March 2020. Among adult patients with detailed medical chart data on underlying conditions at the time of reporting (n = 178), 48.3% were obese. Furthermore, among patients with available race/ethnicity data (n = 580), 33.1% were non-Hispanic Black/African American, a population accounting for approximately 13% of the surveillance catchment population. The speaker accurately reported these findings from the CDC study.

0:27:21Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

A 70-year-old individual produces approximately four times less cutaneous vitamin D than a 20-year-old.

"While other sources have suggested a 70-year-old may produce four times less vitamin D than their former 20-year-old selves." (said at 0:27:21)

Experimental studies examining human skin biopsy samples exposed to ultraviolet radiation demonstrate an age-dependent decline in epidermal 7-dehydrocholesterol (provitamin D3) and a substantial reduction in the capacity to synthesize previtamin D3. The landmark study by MacLaughlin and Holick (1985) found that the cutaneous synthesis capacity for previtamin D3 decreased by greater than twofold when comparing skin samples from younger individuals (ages 8–18) to older individuals (ages 77–82), with later reviews frequently citing an up to fourfold (roughly 75%) reduction in cutaneous synthesis capacity over the adult lifespan.

0:14:32Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedhigh

Prolonged use of hydroxychloroquine can cause retinopathy.

"The most severe complication is development of retinopathy with prolonged use." (said at 0:14:32)

Prolonged use of hydroxychloroquine is well established to cause toxic retinopathy, which is irreversible and represents the principal vision-threatening adverse effect of long-term therapy. According to clinical practice guidelines from the American Academy of Ophthalmology and large cohort studies, the risk of developing retinopathy increases substantially with both daily dose and duration of treatment, leading to recommendations for baseline screening and regular annual monitoring after 5 years of use.

0:30:55Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedhigh

A meta-analysis of 25 randomized controlled trials found that daily or weekly vitamin D supplementation reduced the risk of acute respiratory infection by more than 50% in people with the lowest baseline vitamin D levels.

"There is data from 25 different randomized controlled trials from around the world showing that daily or weekly supplementation of vitamin D reduced the risk of acute respiratory infection by more than 50% in people with the lowest vitamin D levels at baseline." (said at 0:30:55)

A 2017 individual participant data meta-analysis of 25 randomized controlled trials (11,321 participants) published in the BMJ evaluated vitamin D supplementation for preventing acute respiratory tract infections. The study found that among participants receiving daily or weekly vitamin D (without large bolus doses), those with the lowest baseline 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels (<25 nmol/L) experienced a 70% reduction in the odds of acute respiratory infection (adjusted odds ratio 0.30, 95% CI 0.17 to 0.53), directly supporting the claim.

0:31:20Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedhigh

People with higher baseline vitamin D levels who received supplementation had a 10% lower risk of acquiring an acute respiratory tract infection.

"People that had higher baseline vitamin D levels also benefited. They had a 10% lower risk of acquiring an acute respiratory tract infection." (said at 0:31:20)

A landmark individual participant data meta-analysis of 25 randomized controlled trials (Martineau et al., 2017) found that vitamin D supplementation safely reduced the risk of acute respiratory tract infections overall (adjusted OR 0.88, 95% CI 0.81 to 0.96). While the greatest protective effect was observed in individuals with profound baseline deficiency (<25 nmol/L, aOR 0.30 to 0.58), participants with higher baseline vitamin D levels (≥25 nmol/L) also experienced a modest but statistically significant benefit, with an adjusted odds ratio of 0.89 (an approximate 10-11% reduction in risk across all dosing regimens, and aOR 0.75 with daily or weekly dosing).

  • supports: Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory tract infections: systematic review… (BMJ (Clinical research ed.) 2017) · cited 2085x in the literature
    "Vitamin D supplementation reduced the risk of acute respiratory tract infection among all participants (adjusted odds ratio 0.88, 95% confidence interval 0.81 to 0.96; P for heterogeneity <0.001). In subgroup analysis, protective effects were seen in those receiving daily or weekly vitamin D without additional bolus doses (adjusted odds ratio 0.81, 0.72 to 0.91) but not in those receiving one or more bolus doses (adjusted odds ratio 0.97, 0.86 to 1.10; P for interaction=0.05). Among those receiving daily or weekly vitamin D, protective effects were stronger in those with baseline 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels <25 nmol/L (adjusted odds ratio 0.30, 0.17 to 0.53) than in those with baseline 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels ≥25 nmol/L (adjusted odds ratio 0.75, 0.60 to 0.95; P for interaction=0.006)." (abstract, results, passage verified)
    pubmedfull study (doi)
0:34:32Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedvery low

SARS-CoV-1 downregulates cellular ACE2 expression levels upon infection, contributing to increased disease severity and lung pathology.

"SARS-CoV-1, which also enters the cell through the ACE2 receptor, downregulates or decreases cellular ACE2 expression levels. And this has been shown to cause worse disease severity in the SARS-1 virus." (said at 0:34:32)

Published animal and mechanistic studies demonstrate that SARS-CoV-1 (SARS-CoV) utilizes ACE2 as a cell entry receptor and subsequently downregulates ACE2 expression. In a landmark 2005 mouse model study (Kuba et al., Nature Medicine), SARS-CoV infection and SARS-CoV Spike protein administration caused downregulation of cellular ACE2 expression, resulting in unopposed angiotensin II activity and significantly worsened acute lung failure. Because this causal relationship between ACE2 downregulation and acute lung pathology was demonstrated primarily in preclinical animal models, certainty is graded as very low.

0:39:06Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedlow

Vitamin D functions as an endocrine repressor of the renin-angiotensin system by downregulating renin gene expression.

"Vitamin D acts as an endocrine repressor of the renin-angiotensin system by downregulating the expression of renin, the rate-limiting enzyme in the renin-angiotensin cascade." (said at 0:39:06)

Preclinical in vitro and animal studies demonstrate that the active form of vitamin D (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) functions as a negative endocrine regulator of the renin-angiotensin system. Mechanistically, liganded vitamin D receptor (VDR) suppresses renin gene transcription by interacting with the cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) and preventing its binding to the cyclic AMP response element in the renin gene promoter, thereby downregulating renin expression.

0:39:28Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedvery low

In preclinical models of acute lung injury, administering calcitriol before injury protected animals by increasing ACE2 expression and downregulating renin.

"So, in a preclinical model for acute lung injury, when the active form of vitamin D, called calcitriol, was administered before lung injury in animals, it protected them from acute lung injury by helping to balance the renin-angiotensin system. It did this by increasing ACE2 levels and downregulating renin." (said at 0:39:28)

Preclinical animal research supports the claim. In a rodent model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury (ALI), pretreatment with calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) significantly reduced lung permeability and histological damage. This protective effect was accompanied by rebalancing of the pulmonary renin-angiotensin system (RAS), specifically through the modulation of RAS components, including upregulating ACE2 and suppressing renin expression. Because the evidence is derived entirely from animal models and in vitro mechanisms, human clinical certainty is very low.

  • supports: Vitamin D alleviates lipopolysaccharide‑induced acute lung injury via regulation of the re… (Molecular medicine reports 2017) · cited 366x in the literature
    "The results demonstrated that a vitamin D agonist, calcitriol, exhibited a beneficial effect on LPS‑induced ALI in rats; calcitriol pretreatment significantly improved LPS‑induced lung permeability, as determined using Evans blue dye. Results from reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction, western blotting and ELISA analysis demonstrated that calcitriol also modulated the expression of members of the renin‑angiotensin system (RAS), including angiotensin (Ang) I‑converting enzymes (ACE and ACE2), renin and Ang II, which indicates that calcitriol may exert protective effects on LPS‑induced lung injury, at least partially, by regulating the balance between the expression of members of the RAS." (abstract, results, passage verified)
    pubmedfull study (doi)
0:40:37Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedvery low

In a preclinical study in rats with diabetic kidney disease, vitamin D supplementation increased ACE2 levels and improved kidney function.

"In another preclinical study, it showed that vitamin D increased ACE2 levels in another situation where the renin-angiotensin system was again dysregulated in rats with diabetic kidney disease. Vitamin D increased ACE2 levels in diabetic rats, and this improved kidney function." (said at 0:40:37)

A 2016 preclinical study in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats evaluated the effects of calcitriol (the active form of vitamin D) on diabetic nephropathy. The study found that calcitriol increased kidney ACE2 levels, decreased ACE levels and the ACE/ACE2 ratio, and reduced proteinuria (an indicator of improved kidney function). Because the evidence is derived exclusively from an animal model, the GRADE certainty is rated as very low.

0:41:10Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedvery low

A study found that human recombinant soluble ACE2 reduced SARS-CoV-2 infection in engineered human organoid tissues.

"In fact, a new study found that human recombinant soluble ACE2 reduced the SARS-CoV-2 infection in engineered human organoid tissues." (said at 0:41:10)

A 2020 study published in Cell by Monteil et al. demonstrated that clinical-grade human recombinant soluble ACE2 (hrsACE2) inhibited SARS-CoV-2 infection in engineered human blood vessel organoids and human kidney organoids. Because this evidence is derived from in vitro organoid models rather than clinical trials in humans, the overall certainty of evidence is very low.

0:42:25Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

Supplementation with approximately 1,000 IU of vitamin D generally increases serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations by about 5 ng/mL.

"Approximately 1,000 IUs of vitamin D generally increases blood levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D, which is the precursor to the active hormone, by around 5 ng/mL." (said at 0:42:25)

Clinical and dose-response trials demonstrate that daily supplementation with 1,000 IU (25 µg) of vitamin D3 typically increases circulating serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations by approximately 5 to 10 ng/mL (12.5 to 25 nmol/L). The exact magnitude of increase depends on individual baseline vitamin D status, body composition (such as BMI), compliance, and genetic factors, but an average rise of around 5 ng/mL per 1,000 IU daily intake is a well-established estimate in clinical guidelines and review literature.

0:43:35Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedhigh

The Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine established the tolerable upper intake level of vitamin D for adults at 4,000 IU per day.

"The Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine conservatively set the tolerable upper intake of vitamin D at 4,000 IUs a day for all adults" (said at 0:43:35)

In its 2011 Dietary Reference Intakes report on calcium and vitamin D, the Institute of Medicine (Food and Nutrition Board) established the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for vitamin D at 4,000 IU per day for adults (and children ages 9 and older), based on risk of hypercalcemia and incorporating uncertainty factors.

0:46:12Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedlow

A Finnish prospective cohort study found that men who used a sauna 2 to 3 times weekly had a 27% lower risk of pneumonia, and those using it 4 to 7 times weekly had a 41% lower risk compared to infrequent users.

"Men who used the sauna two to three times weekly were 27% less likely to develop pneumonia than those who used the sauna once a week or not at all. Men who used the sauna four to seven times a week were 41% less likely to develop pneumonia compared to the infrequent sauna users." (said at 0:46:12)

The statement accurately reflects findings from the Finnish Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease (KIHD) prospective cohort study (Kunutsor et al., 2017). In that cohort, men who used a sauna 2 to 3 times per week had a 27% lower risk (HR 0.73, 95% CI 0.58–0.92) and those using it 4 to 7 times per week had a 41% lower risk (HR 0.59, 95% CI 0.37–0.94) of acute and chronic respiratory diseases compared to men using it once a week or less. For pneumonia specifically within the same multivariate model, the risk reductions were 28% (HR 0.72, 95% CI 0.57–0.90) and 37% (HR 0.63, 95% CI 0.39–1.00), respectively. In a follow-up analysis focusing solely on pneumonia in 2,210 men (PMID 29229091), risk reductions ranged from 28% to 44% depending on covariate adjustments. Evidence is rated as low certainty due to the observational cohort design and residual confounding.

0:47:50Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedlow

A study showed that regular sauna bathing 1 to 2 times per week over 6 months significantly reduced the incidence of common colds in 25 participants compared to 25 controls after an initial 3-month latency period.

"Sauna bathing was shown to reduce the incidence of common colds in 25 participants that used the sauna one to two times per week for 6 months compared to 25 controls that did not. It took 3 months before the sauna had a protective effect." (said at 0:47:50)

A randomized controlled trial by Ernst et al. (1990) evaluated 25 volunteers assigned to regular sauna bathing compared to 25 controls who abstained over a 6-month period. The study found a statistically significant reduction in the incidence of common colds in the sauna group compared to controls, with the effect emerging primarily in the final 3 months of the 6-month period (where cold incidence was approximately halved). Certainty is low given the small sample size (n = 50) and reliance on self-reported symptoms.

  • supports: Regular sauna bathing and the incidence of common colds. (Annals of medicine 1990) · cited 60x in the literature
    "Twenty-five volunteers were submitted to sauna bathing, with 25 controls abstaining from this or comparable procedures. In both groups the frequency, duration and severity of common colds were recorded for six months. There were significantly fewer episodes of common cold in the sauna group. This was found particularly during the last three months of the study period when the incidence was roughly halved compared to controls." (abstract, results, passage verified)
    pubmedfull study (doi)
0:55:58Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedhigh

In a pharmacokinetic study of 12 healthy young adults, 1.25 g of vitamin C achieved peak plasma concentrations of 135 µmol/L orally versus 885 µmol/L intravenously.

"In one clinical study in which 12 adults between the ages of 19 and 27 were administered 1.25 g of vitamin C either orally or intravenously, peak plasma concentrations reached 135 micromoles per liter of blood and 885 micromoles per liter of blood, respectively." (said at 0:55:58)

In a 2004 pharmacokinetic study by Padayatty and colleagues published in the Annals of Internal Medicine, administration of a 1.25 g dose of vitamin C produced mean peak plasma concentrations of 134.8 ± 20.6 µmol/L when given orally compared to 885 ± 201.2 µmol/L when given intravenously, directly matching the spoken figures.

0:56:25Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

An oral vitamin C dose of 3 g every 4 hours achieved peak blood concentrations of 220 µmol/L, compared to 1,760 µmol/L for a single 3 g intravenous dose.

"Furthermore, a high dose of 3 g taken every 4 hours resulted in peak blood concentrations of 220 micromoles per liter compared to 1,760 micromoles per liter for a single 3-g dose of intravenous vitamin C." (said at 0:56:25)

The speaker's statement accurately reflects pharmacokinetic findings from a clinical pharmacokinetic study in 17 healthy volunteers (Padayatty et al., 2004). In this study, oral dosing was found to produce tightly controlled plasma concentrations, with pharmacokinetic modeling predicting a peak steady-state plasma concentration of approximately 220 µmol/L for the maximum tolerated oral dose of 3 g every 4 hours, compared to 1,760 µmol/L predicted for a single 3 g intravenous dose.

0:57:45Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

The CITRIS-ALI trial of 167 patients with sepsis and ARDS found 28-day mortality was approximately 30% in the intravenous vitamin C group versus 46% in the placebo group.

"The randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial took place in seven medical intensive care units in the United States over a period of 3 years. The study participants included 167 male and female participants with sepsis and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Every 6 hours for 4 days, the patients received either intravenous vitamin C, 50 mg per kilogram of body weight, or placebo. The authors of the study noted a substantial difference in the death rates for the two groups. Whereas approximately 30% of patients who received the intravenous vitamin C died, more than 46% of patients who took the placebo died." (said at 0:57:45)

The CITRIS-ALI randomized clinical trial (Fowler et al., JAMA 2019) enrolled 167 patients with sepsis and ARDS across 7 medical intensive care units, administering intravenous vitamin C (50 mg/kg every 6 hours for 96 hours) or placebo. While the primary endpoints (change in modified SOFA score at 96 hours and plasma biomarkers of inflammation and vascular injury) showed no significant differences, 28-day all-cause mortality (a secondary endpoint) was 29.8% (25/84) in the vitamin C group compared with 46.3% (38/82) in the placebo group (P = .03). Because mortality was one of 46 pre-specified secondary outcomes and not adjusted for multiple comparisons, the authors noted these exploratory secondary findings require confirmation in subsequent trials.

  • supports: Effect of Vitamin C Infusion on Organ Failure and Biomarkers of Inflammation and Vascular … (JAMA 2019) · cited 839x in the literature
    "The CITRIS-ALI trial was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial conducted in 7 medical intensive care units in the United States, enrolling patients (N = 167) with sepsis and ARDS present for less than 24 hours. The study was conducted from September 2014 to November 2017, and final follow-up was January 2018. Patients were randomly assigned to receive intravenous infusion of vitamin C (50 mg/kg in dextrose 5% in water, n = 84) or placebo (dextrose 5% in water only, n = 83) every 6 hours for 96 hours." (abstract, methods, passage verified)
    pubmedfull study (doi)
0:58:55Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedvery low

A retrospective study treating 47 sepsis patients with IV vitamin C, hydrocortisone, and thiamine reported a hospital mortality rate of 8.5% compared to 40.4% in a matched control group.

"A separate study treated 47 patients with 6 g of intravenous vitamin C four times per day for 4 days along with a steroid medication and vitamin B1, thiamine. A control group of 47 patients identified as having similar baseline characteristics of sepsis when admitted to the intensive care unit received standard of care. The death rate in the treated group was only 8.5% compared to 40.4% in the control group." (said at 0:58:55)

The speaker accurately describes the published findings of a 2017 retrospective before-and-after study by Marik et al. in Chest. In that study, 47 patients with severe sepsis or septic shock treated with intravenous vitamin C, hydrocortisone, and thiamine had an in-hospital mortality rate of 8.5% (4/47) compared to 40.4% (19/47) in a historical control group of 47 matched ICU patients. Because this was a small, non-randomized, single-center before-after study, the certainty of evidence for clinical efficacy is very low.

0:47:19Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedlow

Waon therapy using far-infrared dry saunas has been shown to improve lung function in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

"Waon therapy, which uses far-infrared dry saunas, also has been shown to improve lung function in patients with chronic pulmonary disease, also known as COPD." (said at 0:47:19)

A small pilot controlled clinical trial (n=20) investigated the adjuvant effect of repeated Waon therapy (60°C far-infrared sauna for 15 minutes followed by 30 minutes of blanket warming, 5 days per week for 4 weeks) alongside conventional treatment in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). The trial found significant improvements in forced expiratory flow at 50% of vital capacity (FEF50%, p=0.019) compared to controls, as well as non-statistically significant positive trends in vital capacity and peak expiratory flow. While available evidence directly supports the statement, the overall certainty is low due to the small sample size and preliminary nature of the pilot data.

0:48:40Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedlow

Sauna use increases white blood cell, lymphocyte, and neutrophil counts in both trained and non-trained athletes.

"White blood cells, lymphocytes, and neutrophil counts were all increased in both trained and non-trained athletes after sauna use." (said at 0:48:40)

A physiological study evaluating the acute effects of a single Finnish sauna session in 9 trained middle-distance runners and 9 untrained men found that sauna exposure leading to a 1.2°C rise in core temperature resulted in significant increases in total white blood cell, lymphocyte, neutrophil, and basophil counts in both groups, with larger overall leukocyte increases observed in the trained athletes. However, the available evidence is limited by small sample sizes and acute before-and-after designs without a non-heat control group.

0:50:53Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedvery low

Heat shock protein 70 directly inhibits viral activity and replication of influenza A virus.

"In addition to directly impacting the immune function, heat shock proteins such as heat shock protein 70 have also been shown to directly inhibit viral activity and replication of influenza virus A." (said at 0:50:53)

Preclinical studies (in vitro and mouse models) demonstrate that heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) binds directly to subunits of the influenza A virus ribonucleoprotein complex (specifically PB1 and PB2), disrupting viral polymerase activity and inhibiting transcription and replication of the virus.

1:00:04Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

Critically ill patients with conditions such as viral infections can have plasma vitamin C levels that are less than 25% of the levels observed in healthy individuals.

"Furthermore, some studies have observed that in critically ill patients such as those with viral infections, plasma levels of vitamin C might be less than 25% of those observed in healthy people." (said at 1:00:04)

Published observational studies in critically ill patients, including those with severe viral infections (such as COVID-19) and septic shock, report severe depletion of circulating ascorbic acid. While normal plasma vitamin C concentrations in healthy populations typically exceed 50 µmol/L (>5 mg/L), critically ill patients frequently exhibit concentrations below the clinical deficiency threshold (<11 µmol/L or <1.5–2 mg/L), representing less than 25% of typical healthy values, with many presenting with undetectable levels upon ICU admission.

1:00:38Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

Neutrophils and leukocytes have vitamin C concentrations between 50 to 100 times higher than plasma.

"highly concentrated in immune cells with neutrophils and leukocytes having between 50 to 100 times higher vitamin C concentrations than plasma." (said at 1:00:38)

Published literature confirms that vitamin C is actively transported into leukocytes (including neutrophils) via sodium-dependent vitamin C transporters (SVCT2) and glucose transporters (GLUTs), accumulating to intracellular concentrations in the millimolar range (typically 1 to >3 mM). Because healthy fasting plasma concentrations of vitamin C are in the micromolar range (approximately 30 to 80 µM), intracellular concentrations within circulating immune cells are 50- to 100-fold higher than in surrounding plasma.

1:01:08Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

Human studies have shown that vitamin C can enhance neutrophil function in young men aged 18 to 30 as well as in older women.

"Studies in humans have shown that vitamin C can enhance neutrophil function in young men between the ages of 18 to 30, as well as in older women." (said at 1:01:08)

Human intervention studies have demonstrated improvements in neutrophil functions following vitamin C supplementation in these specific populations. A trial in 14 young men aged 18–30 with suboptimal baseline vitamin C levels found that 4 weeks of dietary supplementation with vitamin C-rich kiwifruit significantly enhanced neutrophil chemotaxis by 20% and increased oxidant generation. Similarly, a study in older women (mean age 72 years) showed that 16 weeks of daily supplementation with vitamins C and E significantly increased neutrophil phagocytic functions, including chemotaxis, adherence, phagocytosis, and superoxide production.

1:01:16Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedlow

Studies in guinea pigs suggest that vitamin C plays an important role in facilitating neutrophil migration to sites of infection.

"In addition, studies in guinea pigs suggest that vitamin C plays an important role in facilitating neutrophil migration to sites of infection." (said at 1:01:16)

Published reviews on vitamin C and immune function document that ascorbic acid accumulates in phagocytic cells, including neutrophils, and plays an important role in enhancing neutrophil chemotaxis (directional migration) and migration to sites of infection, as well as supporting subsequent phagocytosis and microbial clearance. Because guinea pigs, like humans, lack the ability to synthesize endogenous vitamin C, they serve as a classic model demonstrating that ascorbate deficiency impairs leukocyte chemotaxis, while supplementation restores normal migration.

  • supports: Vitamin C and Immune Function. (Nutrients 2017) · cited 2021x in the literature
    "Vitamin C accumulates in phagocytic cells, such as neutrophils, and can enhance chemotaxis, phagocytosis, generation of reactive oxygen species, and ultimately microbial killing. It is also needed for apoptosis and clearance of the spent neutrophils from sites of infection by macrophages, thereby decreasing necrosis/NETosis and potential tissue damage." (abstract, passage verified)
    pubmedfull study (doi)
1:01:46Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedvery low

Multiple in vitro studies in mouse and human cell lines have demonstrated that culturing T cells with vitamin C can enhance T cell development.

"Multiple in vitro studies in both mouse and human cell lines have demonstrated that growing T cells in culture with vitamin C might enhance T cell development." (said at 1:01:46)

In vitro studies using human and mouse progenitor cells demonstrate that ascorbic acid (vitamin C) promotes and enhances T-cell differentiation and maturation in cell culture. In human hematopoietic stem cell cultures, ascorbic acid was shown to promote the transition of progenitor cells and enhance the generation of double-positive T cells. In mouse bone marrow progenitor cultures, ascorbic acid was found to be essential for developmental progression to functional T lymphocytes.

1:01:57Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedhigh

Pharmacologic doses of intravenous vitamin C greater than 1 g generate hydrogen peroxide.

"pharmacologic doses of intravenous vitamin C greater than 1 g generates hydrogen peroxide, a type of reactive oxygen species that can damage DNA, RNA, and proteins, leading to tissue damage." (said at 1:01:57)

Preclinical and clinical pharmacokinetic research demonstrates that pharmacologic doses of intravenous vitamin C (achieving millimolar concentrations in blood and tissues, which cannot be reached via oral dosing) act as a pro-oxidant prodrug generating hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in extracellular fluid and interstitial tissues. This generation of reactive oxygen species drives oxidative stress, cellular damage, and cytotoxicity, a mechanism widely explored in oncologic research.

1:02:25Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

Successive treatments with high-dose intravenous vitamin C have not been shown to increase pro-oxidative markers in healthy individuals.

"successive treatments with high-dose intravenous vitamin C has not been shown to increase pro-oxidative markers in healthy individuals" (said at 1:02:25)

Published clinical trial evidence directly supports the claim. In a randomized crossover study evaluating consecutive daily infusions of high-dose intravenous vitamin C (up to 7,500 mg daily for six consecutive days) in healthy human volunteers, researchers assessed markers of pro-oxidative damage, including plasma thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS), tocopherol, and urinary 8-oxoguanosine. Rather than increasing pro-oxidative damage, TBARS decreased and other markers remained unchanged, leading the authors to conclude that high-dose intravenous vitamin C was not associated with an induction of pro-oxidative effects.

1:03:38Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

Patients with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency are at risk of hemolysis when given intravenous vitamin C doses of 40 g or higher.

"Additionally, people who have a deficiency in the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase could be at risk of hemolysis, the rupturing of red blood cells, when given high doses of intravenous vitamin C. Although these studies suggest that vitamin C could be contraindicated in these conditions, the intravenous doses administered were 40 g or higher, which is pretty high." (said at 1:03:38)

Patients with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency are well documented to be at risk for acute intravascular hemolysis when receiving high-dose intravenous vitamin C (ascorbic acid). High intravenous doses (often 40 g to 80 g or higher) generate significant oxidative stress via hydrogen peroxide formation. Because erythrocytes in G6PD-deficient individuals cannot generate sufficient NADPH to maintain reduced glutathione levels, they are susceptible to severe oxidative damage and hemolysis. Systematic reviews of clinical reports confirm that G6PD deficiency accounts for the majority of reported cases of vitamin C-induced hemolysis, prompting clinical guidelines to mandate G6PD screening prior to administering high-dose intravenous vitamin C.

1:06:25Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

Melatonin production in the pineal gland declines with age, starting around 40 years old.

"Melatonin production in the pineal gland declines with age starting around 40 years old." (said at 1:06:25)

Melatonin is synthesized by the pineal gland, and physiological studies consistently document a progressive age-related decline in nocturnal melatonin secretion and circadian rhythm amplitude. Histomorphological and endocrine analyses demonstrate progressive pineal degeneration (calcification, parenchymal cell loss) and significant decreases in circulating melatonin levels beginning in middle adulthood (typically starting around age 40 to 50) and continuing into old age.

1:06:45Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedlow

Human lymphocytes synthesize and release melatonin at concentrations in medium up to five times higher than nocturnal physiological levels in human serum.

"For example, human lymphoid cells are an important physiological source of melatonin since resting and activated human lymphocytes synthesize and release large amounts of melatonin with melatonin concentration in medium increasing up to five times the nocturnal physiological levels in human serum." (said at 1:06:45)

A seminal in vitro study evaluating human lymphocytes (PMID 14715696) demonstrated that both resting and phytohemagglutinin-stimulated human lymphocytes synthesize and secrete melatonin. The study found that the concentration of melatonin accumulated in the culture medium reached levels up to five times higher than typical human nocturnal serum physiological levels.

1:08:10Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedvery low

Melatonin can inhibit the translocation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) to the nucleus, thereby blunting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

"melatonin can inhibit the translocation of nuclear factor kappa B, NF-κB as it's called, to the nucleus, which then blunts the production of many different pro-inflammatory cytokines, which are regulated by that NF-κB." (said at 1:08:10)

Preclinical in vitro and animal models demonstrate that melatonin exerts anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB). Blunting NF-κB nuclear translocation and DNA-binding activity consequently suppresses the downstream expression and secretion of key pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. Because this mechanistic pathway is documented in experimental cellular and animal studies rather than direct clinical trial endpoints, the certainty of evidence for this specific biological mechanism is rated as very low under clinical grading frameworks.

1:08:52Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedvery low

Melatonin ameliorates respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)-induced lung inflammatory injury in mice by inhibiting oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokine production.

"Melatonin ameliorates RSV-induced lung inflammatory injury in mice via inhibition of oxidative stress and pro-inflammatory cytokine production." (said at 1:08:52)

The claim directly reflects the findings and specific conclusions of an experimental study in mice. In mice infected intranasally with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), melatonin treatment was found to significantly reverse RSV-induced oxidative stress markers (reducing malondialdehyde, nitric oxide, and hydroxyl radicals while restoring glutathione and superoxide dismutase levels) and reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-alpha, thereby ameliorating RSV-induced pulmonary inflammatory injury. Because the evidence is derived exclusively from preclinical animal models, certainty is rated as very low.

1:09:10Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

Two clinical studies showed that melatonin has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions in newborns with respiratory distress syndrome, reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines and improving clinical outcomes.

"Two clinical studies have shown that melatonin has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions in the lungs in newborns born with respiratory distress syndrome. Melatonin treatment reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines and improved clinical outcome." (said at 1:09:10)

Multiple controlled clinical trials in preterm infants with respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) have demonstrated that melatonin administration exhibits antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Specifically, clinical trials by Gitto et al. evaluated preterm newborns with RDS and found that melatonin treatment significantly reduced levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (such as IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-alpha) measured in serum and tracheobronchial aspirates, lowered markers of oxidative/nitrosative stress (nitrites/nitrates), and improved clinical outcomes, including reduced incidence of chronic lung disease / bronchopulmonary dysplasia.

1:09:40Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials found that melatonin use is associated with a reduction in TNF-alpha and IL-6 levels.

"A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials suggested that the use of melatonin is associated with a reduction of TNF-alpha and IL-6 levels." (said at 1:09:40)

Multiple systematic reviews and meta-analyses of clinical trials have evaluated the effects of melatonin supplementation on pro-inflammatory cytokines. A 2020 meta-analysis of clinical trials (Zarezadeh et al.) found that melatonin supplementation significantly decreased levels of both TNF-alpha (WMD = -2.24 pg/ml; 95% CI: -3.45, -1.03) and IL-6 (WMD = -30.25 pg/ml; 95% CI: -41.45, -19.06). A subsequent 2024 meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials in patients with diabetes (Teymouri et al.) similarly demonstrated significant reductions in TNF-alpha (SMD = -0.40; 95% CI: -0.64, -0.15) and IL-6 (SMD = -0.79; 95% CI: -1.07, -0.51). Evidence certainty is moderate due to high statistical heterogeneity across trial datasets.

1:09:53Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

An 8-week randomized controlled trial in patients with diabetes and periodontitis found that 6 mg/day of melatonin supplementation decreased serum levels of IL-6, TNF-alpha, and hs-CRP.

"In chronic inflammatory conditions, like in an 8-week randomized controlled trial with patients with diabetes and also periodontitis, supplementation with 6 mg of melatonin per day decreased serum levels of IL-6, TNF-alpha, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, which are all biomarkers of inflammation." (said at 1:09:53)

A double-blind randomized controlled trial by Bazyar et al. (2019) evaluated 6 mg/day of oral melatonin supplementation versus placebo alongside non-surgical periodontal therapy in 50 patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and chronic periodontitis over an 8-week period. The trial measured inflammatory markers including IL-6, TNF-alpha, and hs-CRP, finding statistically significant reductions in serum IL-6 (p = 0.008) and hs-CRP (p = 0.017) in the melatonin group compared to baseline.

  • supports: The effects of melatonin supplementation in adjunct with non-surgical periodontal therapy … (Inflammopharmacology 2019) · cited 109x in the literature
    "In this double-blind clinical trial study, 50 type 2 DM patients with CP were randomly allocated to the intervention and control groups. The intervention and control groups received either 6 mg melatonin or placebo (2 tablets) once a day. Serum levels of melatonin, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), hs-C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), clinical attachment loss (CAL), pocket depth (PD), bleeding on probing (BOP) and plaque index were evaluated in all subjects pre- and post-intervention. Melatonin supplementation significantly increased the mean serum levels of melatonin after intervention... IL-6 and hs-CRP levels were significantly (p = 0.008 and p = 0.017, respectively) reduced in the intervention group." (abstract, methods and results, passage verified)
    pubmedfull study (doi)
1:10:16Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

A clinical trial in multiple sclerosis patients found that 25 mg/day of melatonin for 6 months reduced serum concentrations of pro-inflammatory cytokines and biomarkers of oxidative stress.

"In another trial in patients with multiple sclerosis, supplementation with 25 mg of melatonin per day for 6 months promoted the reduction of serum concentrations of a variety of different pro-inflammatory cytokines as well as biomarkers of oxidative stress." (said at 1:10:16)

A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial in 36 patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis treated with interferon beta-1b found that oral supplementation with 25 mg/day of melatonin for 6 months significantly reduced serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-alpha by 18%, IL-1beta by 34.8%, and IL-6 by 34.7%) as well as markers of oxidative stress (lipoperoxides by 39.9% and nitric oxide catabolites by 24%) compared with placebo.

  • supports: Efficacy of Melatonin on Serum Pro-inflammatory Cytokines and Oxidative Stress Markers in … (Archives of medical research 2018) · cited 100x in the literature
    "36 patients diagnose with RRMS treated with Interferon β-1b (IFNβ-1b) were enrolled in a double bind, randomized, placebo controlled trial. The experimental group received orally 25 mg/d of melatonin for 6 months. After melatonin administration, we observed a significant decrease in serum concentration of pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress markers; 18% for TNF-α (p <0.05), 34.8% for IL-1β (p <0.05), 34.7% for IL-6 (p <0.05), 39.9% for lipoperoxides (LPO) (p <0.05) and 24% for nitric oxide catabolites (NOC) levels (p <0.05), compared with placebo group." (abstract, results, passage verified)
    pubmedfull study (doi)
1:11:14Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedvery low

Melatonin reduces macrophage and neutrophil infiltration into the lungs in animal models of acute lung injury via inhibition of the NLRP3 inflammasome.

"Melatonin has been shown to reduce the infiltration of macrophages and neutrophils into the lung in acute lung injury animal models due to the inhibition of the NLRP3 inflammasome." (said at 1:11:14)

Animal studies directly support the claim. In mouse models of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury, melatonin administration significantly reduced macrophage and neutrophil infiltration into the lungs and attenuated pulmonary tissue damage by blocking the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and downstream inflammatory signaling (such as caspase-1 and IL-1β release). Because this evidence is currently limited to preclinical animal and in vitro models, the certainty of evidence for clinical translation is very low.

1:11:47Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedhigh

A meta-analysis of 19 randomized controlled trials demonstrated that melatonin decreases sleep onset latency, increases total sleep time, and improves overall sleep quality.

"A meta-analysis of 19 randomized controlled trials demonstrates that melatonin decreases sleep onset latency, increases total sleep time, and improves overall sleep quality." (said at 1:11:47)

A 2013 meta-analysis of 19 randomized, placebo-controlled trials involving 1,683 participants with primary sleep disorders evaluated the effects of melatonin on sleep parameters. Melatonin significantly decreased sleep onset latency by an average of 7.06 minutes (95% CI: 4.37 to 9.75), increased total sleep time by 8.25 minutes (95% CI: 1.74 to 14.75), and significantly improved overall sleep quality compared to placebo.

  • supports: Meta-analysis: melatonin for the treatment of primary sleep disorders. (PloS one 2013) · cited 483x in the literature
    "Nineteen studies involving 1683 subjects were included in this meta-analysis. Melatonin demonstrated significant efficacy in reducing sleep latency (weighted mean difference (WMD) = 7.06 minutes [95% CI 4.37 to 9.75], Z = 5.15, p<0.001) and increasing total sleep time (WMD = 8.25 minutes [95% CI 1.74 to 14.75], Z = 2.48, p = 0.013)... Overall sleep quality was significantly improved in subjects taking melatonin (standardized mean difference = 0.22 [95% CI: 0.12 to 0.32], Z = 4.52, p<0.001) compared to placebo... This meta-analysis demonstrates that melatonin decreases sleep onset latency, increases total sleep time and improves overall sleep quality." (abstract, results and conclusions, passage verified)
    pubmedfull study (doi)
1:08:52Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedhigh

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infects the respiratory tract of most children by 2 years of age.

"RSV is a very contagious and common virus that infects the respiratory tract of most children by 2 years of age." (said at 1:08:52)

Epidemiological studies and longitudinal birth cohort tracking consistently demonstrate that respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a highly prevalent respiratory pathogen, with virtually all children experiencing at least one infection by 2 years of age.

1:07:15Rhonda Patrick (host)supportedmoderate

T lymphocytes, natural killer cells, and mast cells express melatonin receptors.

"T lymphocytes, natural killer cells, and mast cells possess melatonin receptors." (said at 1:07:15)

Published cell biology studies confirm that T lymphocytes (both CD4+ helper and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells), natural killer (NK) cells, and mast cells express melatonin receptors. In human peripheral blood mononuclear cell subsets, MT1 membrane receptor and nuclear melatonin-binding receptor (ROR/RZR) transcripts have been identified across T helper cells, cytotoxic T cells, and NK cells. Similarly, MT1 and MT2 membrane receptors have been characterized on mast cells in human tissue biopsies and established mast cell lines.

15

No source found (not proven false)

0:06:39Rhonda Patrick (host)unverifiedvery low

In a study of 10 pediatric COVID-19 patients, 8 persistently tested positive on rectal swabs after nasopharyngeal testing had become negative.

"On the topic of persistent fecal shedding of the virus, out of 10 pediatric SARS-CoV-2 infection cases, eight children persistently tested positive on rectal swabs even after nasopharyngeal testing was negative, raising the possibility of fecal-oral transmission." (said at 0:06:39)

No published record matching the specific claim that 8 out of 10 pediatric COVID-19 patients persistently tested positive on rectal swabs after nasopharyngeal testing became negative was located; this does not prove the claim false.

0:09:46Rhonda Patrick (host)unverifiedvery low

In a study of six COVID-19-positive mothers, SARS-CoV-2 was not detected in newborns, but elevated IgG antibodies were found in five infants and elevated IgM antibodies in two infants.

"So, a publication found that among six mothers with confirmed COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2 was not detected in the serum or throat swab in any of the newborns. However, virus-specific antibodies were detected in neonatal blood serum samples. IgG concentrations were elevated in five infants. And IgG normally crosses the placenta, and IgM concentrations were elevated in two infants." (said at 0:09:46)

No published record matching the claim was located; this does not prove the claim false.

0:23:36Rhonda Patrick (host)unverifiedvery low

A retrospective study of 101 COVID-19 deaths in Wuhan showed a lower proportion of blood type O and a higher proportion of blood type A compared to the local Han population distribution.

"Another study, a retrospective analysis from clinical features in 101 death cases with COVID-19, the blood group distribution of deaths differed pretty remarkably between that from the Han population in Wuhan. Although not analyzed statistically, type O was comparatively low, while type A was high." (said at 0:23:36)

No published record matching a retrospective analysis of 101 COVID-19 deaths in Wuhan comparing blood group distributions to the local Han population was located; this does not prove the claim false.

0:25:20Rhonda Patrick (host)unverifiedvery low

Vitamin D regulates more than 5% of the protein-encoding human genome.

"Underscoring its importance for health, it actually regulates more than 5% of the protein-encoding human genome." (said at 0:25:20)

No published record matching the claim that vitamin D regulates more than 5% of the protein-encoding human genome was located; this does not prove the claim false.

0:27:18Rhonda Patrick (host)unverifiedvery low

NHANES data indicates older adults are 63% more likely to be vitamin D deficient and 46% more likely to be vitamin D insufficient than younger adults.

"According to NHANES data, older adults were 63% more likely to have vitamin D deficiency and 46% more likely to have vitamin D insufficiency than young adults." (said at 0:27:18)

No published record matching the claim that NHANES data indicates older adults are 63% more likely to be vitamin D deficient and 46% more likely to be vitamin D insufficient than younger adults was located; this does not prove the claim false.

0:29:28Rhonda Patrick (host)unverifiedvery low

A March 2020 BMJ report found that Somali immigrants living in Stockholm accounted for 40% of reported COVID-19 deaths in Sweden while making up 0.84% of Stockholm County's population.

"Another paper published in BMJ in March of 2020 reported Somali immigrants living in Stockholm, Sweden make up 40% of the COVID-19-related deaths reported at that time in Sweden. ... This rate of hospitalization is really high considering that Somalis only make up 0.84% of the Stockholm County population." (said at 0:29:28)

No published record matching the claim that a March 2020 BMJ report found Somali immigrants in Stockholm accounted for 40% of Sweden's reported COVID-19 deaths was located; this does not prove the claim false.

0:16:37Rhonda Patrick (host)unverifiedvery low

Chloroquine impairs early-stage viral replication by interfering with pH-dependent endosome-mediated viral entry into host cells.

"chloroquine has been shown to impair early stage replication of the virus by interfering with pH-dependent endosome-mediated viral entry into the cell." (said at 0:16:37)

No published record matching the claim that chloroquine impairs early-stage viral replication by interfering with pH-dependent endosome-mediated viral entry into host cells was located; this does not prove the claim false.

0:18:08Rhonda Patrick (host)unverifiedvery low

Quercetin blocks the entry of SARS-CoV-1 into host cells in vitro.

"Quercetin has been reported to block the entry of SARS-CoV-1, the virus that caused the original SARS outbreak, in host cells. And so, this was in cells in a petri dish." (said at 0:18:08)

No published record matching the claim that quercetin blocks the entry of SARS-CoV-1 into host cells in vitro was located; this does not prove the claim false.

0:49:52Rhonda Patrick (host)unverifiedvery low

In human lung epithelial cells, maximal heat shock protein 70 levels increase linearly by approximately 50% per degree Celsius between 98.6°F and 105.8°F.

"The relationship between exposure, temperature, and maximal heat shock protein 70 protein levels was linear between normal body temperature of 98.6° F and 105.8° F. So, increasing approximately 50% per degree Celsius in human lung epithelial cells." (said at 0:49:52)

No published record matching the specific claim that maximal heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) levels increase linearly by approximately 50% per degree Celsius between 98.6°F (37°C) and 105.8°F (41°C) in human lung epithelial cells was located; this does not prove the claim false.

1:03:15Rhonda Patrick (host)unverifiedvery low

The most commonly reported side effects of intravenous vitamin C include mild to moderate nausea, headache, and dry mouth.

"The most commonly reported side effects include mild to moderate nausea, headache, and dry mouth with less commonly reported side effects being fatigue, hypertension, loss of appetite, and hyperglycemia." (said at 1:03:15)

No published record matching the claim that the most commonly reported side effects of intravenous vitamin C include mild to moderate nausea, headache, and dry mouth (with less frequent fatigue, hypertension, loss of appetite, and hyperglycemia) was located; this does not prove the claim false.

1:05:48Rhonda Patrick (host)unverifiedvery low

Melatonin controls the activity of over 500 genes.

"Melatonin is actually a hormone. It controls the activity of over 500 genes, many of them involved in circadian rhythm, inflammation, immune function, antioxidant activity, and more." (said at 1:05:48)

No published record matching the claim that melatonin controls the activity of over 500 genes was located; this does not prove the claim false.

1:07:49Rhonda Patrick (host)unverifiedvery low

Melatonin administration increases rat lymphocyte proliferation, increases natural killer cell count, stimulates pro-inflammatory cytokine and TNF release, enhances phagocytosis, and modulates apoptosis.

"Melatonin administration increases the proliferative response of rat lymphocytes, increases the number of natural killer cells, stimulates the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor, it enhances phagocytosis, and it modulates apoptosis." (said at 1:07:49)

No published record matching the claim that melatonin administration increases rat lymphocyte proliferation, increases natural killer cell count, stimulates pro-inflammatory cytokine and TNF release, enhances phagocytosis, and modulates apoptosis was located; this does not prove the claim false.

1:10:36Rhonda Patrick (host)unverifiedvery low

Melatonin intake for less than 5 days reduced pro-inflammatory cytokine levels during acute phase inflammatory conditions such as surgical stress, brain reperfusion, and coronary artery reperfusion.

"Also, during the acute phase of inflammation, for example, during surgical stress, brain reperfusion, and coronary artery reperfusion, melatonin intake for less than 5 days reduced the level of pro-inflammatory cytokines." (said at 1:10:36)

No published record matching the claim that melatonin intake for less than 5 days reduced pro-inflammatory cytokine levels during acute phase inflammatory conditions such as surgical stress, brain reperfusion, and coronary artery reperfusion was located; this does not prove the claim false.

1:12:15Rhonda Patrick (host)unverifiedvery low

Melatonin has shown no adverse effects in human studies at doses as high as 1 g per day for a month.

"There's no adverse effects that have been seen at doses even as high as 1 g per day for a month." (said at 1:12:15)

No published record matching the claim that melatonin produced no adverse effects at doses of 1 g per day for a month was located; this does not prove the claim false.

1:12:30Rhonda Patrick (host)unverifiedvery low

Melatonin administered at doses of 3, 6, or 10 mg was shown to be safe compared to placebo in ICU patients.

"In patients in the ICU, doses of 3, 6, or 10 mg were shown to be safe compared to placebo." (said at 1:12:30)

No published record matching the claim that melatonin administered at doses of 3, 6, or 10 mg was shown to be safe compared to placebo in ICU patients was located; this does not prove the claim false.

Unverified means no publication matching the claim was located; it does not prove the claim false. Spotted an error? See the corrections policy - disputes from the people quoted are prioritized.