HoldsUp

Anthony Kaldellis

Anthony Kaldellis is a historian specializing in the Roman Empire. He is the author of "The New Roman Empire," which provides a comprehensive history of the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire).

68 claims checked on air: 2 context 1 contradicted 1 overstated 46 supported 18 unverified 2 flagged

What they said on air - supported

0:00:49supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Narses was a eunuch and general under Justinian who defeated the Goths in Italy.

"Narses, Justinian's general, who defeated the Goths in Italy in this massive battle. Like this guy was a total hard-ass. And he was a little man, he was very old and he was tiny and he was a eunuch" (said at 0:00:49)

Historical scholarship and primary accounts confirm that Narses was an elderly court eunuch who served as a prominent general under Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. Appointed to command the imperial forces in Italy during the Gothic Wars, Narses decisively defeated the Ostrogoths (notably at the Battle of Taginae in 552 CE and subsequent engagements), bringing the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy to an end.

0:03:00supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Western Europeans used the name 'Empire of the Greeks' for approximately one thousand years before adopting the term 'Byzantine Empire'.

"And those reasons have created these models where they called it Empire of the Greeks for a thousand years and they switched to Byzantine Empire for very political reasons." (said at 0:03:00)

Western European sources conventionally referred to the medieval Eastern Roman Empire as the 'Empire of the Greeks' (Imperium Graecorum) or 'Constantinopolitan Empire' following the coronation of Charlemagne in 800 CE, largely to delegitimize its claim to the Roman imperial title in favor of Western imperial claims. The term 'Byzantine' as a designation for the medieval state was formally introduced into historiography in the sixteenth century (notably by Hieronymus Wolf in 1557) and popularized during the Enlightenment and nineteenth century, spanning nearly a thousand years of medieval Western usage of 'Greek Empire'.

0:06:35supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Emperor Diocletian ruled the Roman Empire from 284 to 305 AD.

"Yes, 284 to 305 AD. Yes, he was a very important reformer." (said at 0:06:35)

Historical scholarship confirms that Emperor Diocletian reigned over the Roman Empire from his accession in 284 AD until his voluntary abdication in 305 AD, instituting extensive administrative, military, and economic reforms (including the Tetrarchy).

0:10:24supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

The Arab conquest of Byzantine territories in the Levant took place over roughly a decade in the 630s.

"There's the Arab conquests in the 630s. This is a decade. In a decade that war was lost." (said at 0:10:24)

Historical scholarship confirms that the Muslim Arab conquest of the Byzantine Levant took place rapidly over the course of roughly a decade during the 630s. Following major engagements including the decisive Battle of Yarmuk in 636 CE, Byzantine forces withdrew from Syria and northern Mesopotamia, resulting in the loss of major Levantine territories by the late 630s and early 640s.

0:10:32supportedmoderateThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

The Seljuk Turks conquered Byzantine Asia Minor during the 1070s.

"It is the Seljuk Turk conquest of Asia Minor, modern Turkey, in the 1070s." (said at 0:10:32)

Historical records and modern scholarship confirm that the Seljuk Turkish expansion and conquest across Byzantine Asia Minor (modern Anatolia) took place primarily during the 1070s, accelerated by the Byzantine defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in August 1071. Following this defeat and the ensuing Byzantine civil wars of the 1070s, Seljuk forces and Turkish nomadic groups rapidly established control over the Anatolian interior, leading to the collapse of Byzantine defensive networks across the region.

0:10:45supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

In 1204, crusaders from the Fourth Crusade sacked and conquered Constantinople.

"And then there's the Fourth Crusade, 1204, when the armies from mostly France sacked, conquered Constantinople and dismembered the empire as much as they could." (said at 0:10:45)

Historical records and scholarly consensus confirm that in April 1204, crusader armies of the Fourth Crusade (which drew heavily from French nobility and knights, alongside Venetian forces) captured, conquered, and sacked Constantinople, subsequently partitioning Byzantine territories and establishing the Latin Empire.

0:25:11supportedmoderateThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

In the 10th and 11th centuries, Jewish women living in the Byzantine Empire used Roman imperial courts because Roman law granted them more property rights than rabbinical courts did.

"So, for example, in the 10th-11th century, there are Jewish women who live in the Eastern Roman Empire who realize that they have more rights in Roman courts than in rabbinical ones. And they take their disputes to the Roman courts. Now, the thing is that for the Romans, these are property matters, not religious matters. But for the rabbis, these are religious matters. But the Roman courts trump the Jewish courts in the empire, right?" (said at 0:25:11)

Historical and legal scholarship confirms that in the Middle Byzantine period (notably the 10th and 11th centuries), Jewish individuals—including women—regularly brought civil, matrimonial, and property disputes before Byzantine (Roman) secular and imperial courts. Byzantine legal collections from this era, such as the 11th-century 'Peira' (case records of the judge Eustathios Romaios), document Jewish women seeking imperial judicial remedies regarding dowries, marital property, and inheritance, where Roman/Byzantine civil law offered enforceable property rights and protections that differed from or superseded rabbinical jurisdiction.

0:28:49supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Emperor Justinian was known publicly as 'the sleepless emperor' due to his reputation for working late hours.

"Justinian, for example, was publicly known as the sleepless emperor." (said at 0:28:49)

Historical records and contemporary scholarship confirm that the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I (reigned 527–565 AD) was widely characterized and publicly promoted as the 'sleepless emperor'. Contemporary writers such as the bureaucrat John the Lydian documented that sleeplessness, vigilance (*vigilantia*), and working day and night on state affairs were deliberately cultivated imperial virtues during his reign, an image that was later satirized and inverted by the contemporary historian Procopius.

0:36:28supportedmoderateThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Over the approximately 1,000-year history of the East Roman Empire, there were approximately 120 civil wars.

"In other words, just take the the thousand years that I study. Uh there's something like 120 civil wars. Now, these are usually very swift. They're over quickly. And they're never about ideology." (said at 0:36:28)

Historical scholarship on the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire identifies frequent internal rebellions, usurpations, and armed conflicts over succession throughout its roughly 1,000-year medieval history, amounting to approximately 120 recorded civil wars and major rebellions. Historiographical analyses (including by Anthony Kaldellis and Jean-Claude Cheynet) document that these civil conflicts were typically swift contests over imperial legitimacy and power rather than ideological or doctrinal disputes.

0:49:20supportedmoderateThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

By the early 3rd century AD prior to Caracalla's edict, at most approximately one-third of the free inhabitants of the Roman Empire held Roman citizenship.

"By Caracalla's time, so early 3rd century AD, we can estimate that maybe at most a third of the free citizens of the empire are Roman citizens. Everyone else has local citizenship like you're Alexandrian or Athenian or whatever." (said at 0:49:20)

Historical demography and legal scholarship on the Roman Empire support the estimate that prior to the Constitutio Antoniniana (the Antonine Constitution of 212 AD promulgated by Emperor Caracalla), Roman citizens constituted only a minority (often estimated at roughly one-fifth to at most one-third) of the free population of the empire. Non-citizen provincial inhabitants (*peregrini*) held local civic status/citizenship in their respective city-states and communities (such as Athens or Alexandria) until the edict extended universal Roman citizenship to almost all free provincial inhabitants.

0:49:55supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

The official reigning name of Roman Emperor Caracalla was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.

"This emperor Caracalla, now that's his nickname. His reigning name is Marcus Aurelius Antoninus." (said at 0:49:55)

Historical records, epigraphy, and scholarly consensus confirm that 'Caracalla' was an informal nickname (referring to a type of hooded tunic he popularized), while his official imperial and reigning name was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, assumed to connect the Severan dynasty with the prestigious Antonine dynasty.

0:50:25supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

In 212 AD, Emperor Caracalla issued the Constitutio Antoniniana, extending Roman citizenship to virtually all free inhabitants across the empire.

"Yeah, so he issues this edict in in 212 called the Constitutio Antoniniana named after him. Some people at the time called it the divine decree. Which basically extended citizenship to everybody." (said at 0:50:25)

Historical consensus and primary legal/paprological evidence confirm that Emperor Caracalla promulgated the Constitutio Antoniniana (Antonine Constitution) in 212 AD. This edict extended Roman citizenship across the empire to virtually all free inhabitants (excluding certain subjugated populations such as the dediticii and enslaved persons).

0:55:15supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

The primary surviving direct textual copy of the Edict of Caracalla is a torn, mutilated papyrus fragment containing a Greek translation.

"Not only do we not know who was in the room, we don't actually even have the whole edict. We have a papyrus fragment. This is a piece of ancient paper that's mostly torn and mutilated and we have like a bit of a paragraph from it in Greek, not even the Latin original, and it's kind of torn, but it actually preserves the key clause." (said at 0:55:15)

The speaker's claim is accurate. The primary surviving direct textual witness to the Constitutio Antoniniana (the 212 CE Edict of Caracalla, which granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Roman Empire) is preserved on Papyrus Gissensis 40 (P. Giss. 40 I). The document is a damaged and fragmentary papyrus manuscript containing a Greek translation rather than the original Latin text, yet it preserves key portions of the imperial decree.

0:55:45supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Following the Edict of Caracalla in 212 AD, there was an immediate surge in the historical record of provincial individuals adopting the nomen 'Aurelius'.

"Like suddenly we know everyone in the provinces, like there's this explosion in the number of people called Aurelius because that was his his Roman family name. And so when you acquired citizenship from that edict, you became an Aurelius and there's lots of Aurelius suddenly all over the place. Like we can see it immediately." (said at 0:55:45)

Historical and epigraphic records document that the Constitutio Antoniniana, promulgated by Emperor Caracalla (officially named Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus) in 212 CE, granted Roman citizenship to free inhabitants across the empire who did not already possess it. In accordance with Roman naming customs, newly enfranchised provincials adopted the emperor's nomen gentile, 'Aurelius', resulting in a widespread and immediate surge of individuals bearing this name in documentary papyri and inscriptions.

1:01:11supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Gaul and Britain functioned as a separate breakaway empire for approximately a decade and a half during the Crisis of the Third Century.

"And we have what's called sometimes the empire of the Gauls, Gaul or modern France and sort of Britain for a while are for a decade and a half or so are kind of like this little separatist empire." (said at 1:01:11)

Historical and archaeological scholarship fully supports the claim. During the Crisis of the Third Century, the Gallic Empire (Latin: *Imperium Galliarum*) functioned as a breakaway state spanning Gaul, Britain, and initially Hispania, lasting for 14 years from 260 CE (established under Postumus) until 274 CE (reunified by Aurelian).

1:07:20supportedmoderateThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Prior to Diocletian's reforms, Italy was exempt from taxation, after which Diocletian imposed regular taxation on Italy.

"Up until then, Italy was exempt from taxes. The conquerors don't pay taxes to themselves. The conquerors live off the taxes that others pay, right? So, Italy was this big tax haven, right? Diocletian, Galerius, you know, his guys, these guys are from Illyria, they're from the Balkans. Like, why is Italy tax-free exactly, you know? It doesn't make any sense. It's a very, very wealthy, prosperous part of the world. And so, no, they taxed Italy." (said at 1:07:20)

Historical scholarship confirms the claim. During the Roman Republic and Principate, mainland Italy enjoyed a privileged legal and fiscal status (*ius Italicum*), having been exempt from direct direct land taxation (*tributum soli*) since 167 BCE after Rome's conquest of Macedonia. As part of his comprehensive late-third-century administrative and fiscal restructuring (the *capitatio-iugatio* system), Emperor Diocletian eliminated Italy's historical tax exemption, dividing the peninsula into administrative dioceses/provinces and subjecting Italian landholders to regular imperial direct taxation alongside the rest of the empire.

1:09:55supportedmoderateThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Diocletian instituted a universal census of all taxable assets across the Roman Empire.

"What Diocletian does is a universal census. And this is continued by his successors. So, every taxable asset in the empire is censused. And so, you can now start to have a budget." (said at 1:09:55)

Historical and epigraphic evidence supports that Emperor Diocletian and his Tetrarchic colleagues instituted sweeping censuses across the Roman Empire to register taxable assets—specifically land units (iuga) and population/labor units (capita)—which served as the basis for a regularized fiscal and taxation system (the indiction cycle), a practice maintained and updated by his successors.

1:13:32supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Aurelian reunified the Roman Empire territorially prior to Diocletian's accession.

"Well, Aurelian had already united the empire territorially. So this is right before Diocletian." (said at 1:13:32)

Historical consensus confirms that Emperor Aurelian (reigned 270–275 CE) reunified the fractured Roman Empire territorially by reconquering both the breakaway Palmyrene Empire in the east and the Gallic Empire in the west, earning the title *Restitutor Orbis* ('Restorer of the World'). This territorial reunification immediately preceded the accession of Diocletian (284 CE), whose administrative reforms built upon the stability restored by Aurelian and the Illyrian emperors.

1:13:32supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Galerius defeated the Persians during the period of the Tetrarchy.

"And he also beat the Persians, I mean Galerius did—so they're starting to beat back foreign invasions." (said at 1:13:32)

Historical scholarship confirms that during the First Tetrarchy, Caesar Galerius achieved a decisive victory over the Sasanian Persian king Narseh (notably at the Battle of Satala, c. 297–298 AD). This victory led to the favorable Peace of Nisibis (299 AD), establishing Roman dominance on the eastern frontier.

1:15:43supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Constantine became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire in 324 AD after defeating Licinius.

"and Constantine emerges in 324 as the sole ruler of the entire Roman Empire. ... And by the time he defeats his last rival, an emperor called Licinius, in 324, he's in the East." (said at 1:15:43)

Historical scholarship confirms that Constantine became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire in 324 AD after decisively defeating his co-emperor and rival Licinius at the Battle of Chrysopolis, ruling as sole emperor until his death in 337 AD.

1:18:34supportedmoderateThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Constantine executed his son Crispus and subsequently his wife Fausta soon after defeating Licinius.

"He executes Crispus soon after defeating Licinius. And then follows it up with the murder of his wife, not Crispus's mother. And we don't know why." (said at 1:18:34)

Historical scholarship and ancient sources confirm that Emperor Constantine I defeated his co-emperor and rival Licinius in 324 CE, and shortly thereafter, in 326 CE, ordered the execution of his eldest son Crispus (son of Minervina) followed by the execution of his wife, Empress Fausta (Crispus's stepmother). The exact motives and circumstances behind both deaths were obscured by imperial damnatio memoriae, remaining unknown or heavily disputed among contemporary and subsequent historians.

1:23:00supportedlowThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

At the time of Constantine's reign, Christians constituted approximately 10 percent or less of the Roman Empire's population.

"Now, here's the thing. We don't know exactly how many Christians existed in the time of Constantine. Well, we speculate maybe 10% of the empire. That might be very high, right? But even if it's 10%, it's not a lot, and these are not like elites for the most part." (said at 1:23:00)

Historical demographic estimates and quantitative models of the early Roman Empire (notably those by Keith Hopkins, Ramsay MacMullen, and Rodney Stark) estimate that Christians comprised roughly 5% to 10% of the imperial population (approximately 3 to 6 million out of an estimated population of 60 million) around 300–312 CE, at the beginning of Constantine's reign. Because ancient census data do not survive, these demographic figures remain probabilistic models and historical estimates, as acknowledged by the speaker.

1:33:26supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Historical panegyric sources record that Constantine experienced a religious vision of Apollo appearing to him in the form of light at a temple in Gaul prior to his Christian conversion.

"He had had religious visions of Apollo before Christ. And we have sources that talk about that, too, that he went to this temple in Gaul and Apollo appeared to him in the form of light." (said at 1:33:26)

Historical Latin panegyric sources record that Constantine had a vision of Apollo at a temple in Gaul prior to his Christian conversion and battle at the Milvian Bridge. Specifically, Panegyric VI(7), delivered in AD 310, describes Constantine visiting a temple in Gaul where he saw Apollo accompanied by Victory offering him laurel crowns.

1:36:00supportedmoderateThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

The Forum of Constantine featured a colossal gilded statue of Constantine atop a tall column, which was a repurposed statue of Apollo depicted naked with solar rays coming from the head.

"in the middle is this very tall column, and it has a colossal statue of Constantine on top, gilded, enormous thing. I don't know, like 8 m tall or whatever. But it's a repurposed Apollo. It's even like visibly so. It's naked. It has the rays coming out of the head, right?" (said at 1:36:00)

Historical and Byzantine sources, as well as modern scholarship, document that the Column of Constantine in the Forum of Constantinople was topped by a colossal bronze statue wearing a radiate crown (solar rays around the head). In Byzantine historiography (e.g., John Malalas, the Chronicon Paschale, and the Patria), this statue was traditionally recorded as an antique statue of Apollo/Helios (reportedly brought from Ilium or Phrygia) that was repurposed and dedicated to represent Constantine. While modern art historians debate whether the statue was originally carved as an Apollo/Helios, an Alexander-ktistes, or an Augustan radiate imperial portrait, the claim accurately reflects the widely documented monument and the primary historical identification of the statue.

1:39:21supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Roman emperors enacted legal restrictions on traditional pagan religious practices, outlawing animal sacrifices, rustic rituals, holding high offices, and placing restrictions on wills.

"So, emperors pass laws that increasingly restrict the exercise of traditional religion. Like, you can't perform animal sacrifices, then you can't start doing these like tying ribbons to make wishes or like all of these things like going out to sacred trees and doing this or that because they say, 'Oh, this is kind of nefarious business or it's like magic or whatever it is.' And then they just gradually start outlawing it more and more, putting restrictions on like if you're not a Christian, you can't hold these high offices or there's problems with your wills." (said at 1:39:21)

Late Roman imperial legislation preserved in the Theodosian Code (notably Book 16) progressively restricted and prohibited traditional polytheist (pagan) practices. Promulgated decrees, such as the comprehensive edict of Theodosius I in 392 CE (CTh 16.10.12), banned public and private animal sacrifice, divination, and rustic cult rituals—explicitly prohibiting actions such as venerating sacred trees with fillets or ribbons and erecting turf altars. Subsequent imperial constitutions progressively barred non-Christians from holding imperial magistracies and administrative offices, while titles such as CTh 16.7 restricted testamentary capacity, revoking the legal right of apostates and pagan practitioners to make wills or inherit property.

1:56:04supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Egyptian grain shipments were diverted to supply Constantinople instead of Rome, while Rome was fed from North Africa and Sicily.

"That grain, that's coming from Egypt. So, New Rome is literally stealing food from the mouth of Old Rome... Old Rome doesn't starve because they divert other—like from North Africa and Sicily, you can feed Rome" (said at 1:56:04)

Historical scholarship confirms that following the foundation of Constantinople as the new imperial capital in late antiquity, Egyptian grain supplies (the imperial annona fleet from Alexandria) were redirected to feed Constantinople rather than Rome. To sustain Rome's population, the Western Roman food supply relied heavily on tax-grain imports from North Africa (proconsular Africa) and Sicily.

1:59:43supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

The Goths crossed the Danube in a major migration in 376 AD, and at the Battle of Adrianople in 378 AD, Emperor Valens was killed and approximately one and a half Roman field armies were destroyed.

"Cuz remember, the Goths cross the Danube for the first time in a major way in 376. Then you have the Battle of Adrianople a couple years later, where like one and a half field armies is just annihilated. And the emperor Valens dies." (said at 1:59:43)

Historical scholarship and contemporary accounts (notably Ammianus Marcellinus) corroborate that Gothic tribal groups crossed the Danube frontier in a massive migration fleeing Hunnic expansion in 376 AD. In 378 AD, Emperor Valens engaged the Gothic forces at the Battle of Adrianople, resulting in a catastrophic defeat in which the Eastern Roman field army suffered massive destruction (historically estimated at roughly two-thirds of the engaged force) and Valens himself was killed.

2:03:36supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

In the 430s, Roman law in Latin was codified in Constantinople and sent to the Western Roman Empire.

"So for example, already by like in the 430s, Constantinople is basically codifying Roman law for the West. So Roman law in Latin is codified in Constantinople and then sent to the West as, "Oh, here's your law code."" (said at 2:03:36)

The speaker's statement accurately describes the creation and transmission of the Codex Theodosianus (Theodosian Code). Commissioned by Eastern Emperor Theodosius II in Constantinople during the 430s (initiated in 429 and completed in 437–438), Roman imperial law was compiled in Latin and formally transmitted to the Western Roman Empire, where it was presented to the Roman Senate and promulgated under Western Emperor Valentinian III to take effect across both halves of the empire on January 1, 439 CE.

2:04:10supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

In the 6th century, the Eastern Roman Empire under Justinian reconquered part of the West and recodified Roman law on a much larger scale.

"In the 6th century, it is the East that reconquers part of the West under Justinian. And not only that, he also recodifies Roman law on a much bigger scale and then that law becomes Western law." (said at 2:04:10)

Historical scholarship confirms that during the 6th century (527–565 AD), the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire under Emperor Justinian I waged campaigns to reconquer parts of the former Western Roman Empire, including North Africa, Italy, and parts of southern Hispania. Simultaneously, Justinian oversaw an unprecedented comprehensive codification of Roman law, producing the Corpus Juris Civilis (consisting of the Codex Justinianus, the Digest or Pandects, the Institutes, and later the Novellae Constitutiones), which subsequently became a foundational cornerstone of the Western civil law tradition.

2:04:35supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Justinian's general Narses was an elderly eunuch who commanded Roman forces to defeat the Goths in Italy.

"Um like Narses, Justinian's general, who defeated the Goths in Italy in this massive battle. Like this guy was a total hard-ass. He was just a little old man. He was very—he was very old. He was tiny, and he was a eunuch" (said at 2:04:35)

Historical scholarship confirms that Narses was a eunuch and court official under Emperor Justinian who was appointed in his old age (in his 70s) to command Eastern Roman imperial forces in Italy during the Gothic War. In 552 CE, Narses decisively defeated the Ostrogothic forces under King Totila at the Battle of Taginae (Busta Gallorum) and subsequently completed the Roman reconquest of Italy.

2:05:26supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Eunuchs in Eastern Roman society were sometimes appointed as bishops or Patriarch of Constantinople.

"There are eunuchs in society generally. They're often bishops. They're appointed patriarch of Constantinople sometimes. They're—they're in all kinds of positions." (said at 2:05:26)

Historical and art historical scholarship confirms that eunuchs in the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire held high ecclesiastical offices, including serving as bishops and Patriarchs of Constantinople. Prominent historical examples include Patriarch Ignatios of Constantinople (served 847–858 and 867–877), whose status as a eunuch is well-documented in both textual sources and contemporary art depicting him as beardless.

2:33:55supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Under Emperor Justinian, Roman law was systematically codified by a committee led by the jurist Tribonian into the Corpus Juris Civilis.

"He appointed a committee. Yep. Uh, as one does. To just take the whole of Roman law and condense it into what today we call the Corpus Juris Civilis, which is the the body of Roman civil law. And this is a massive work of codification. Um, and and it is our main source for Roman law. Like overwhelmingly, what we call Roman law is what Justinian's committee and specifically this character called Tribonian, who was a very accomplished jurist, uh, said it was." (said at 2:33:55)

Historical and legal scholarship firmly establishes that Emperor Justinian I ordered the systematic codification of Roman law in the 6th century CE (producing the Codex Justinianus, Digest or Pandects, Institutes, and later Novels, collectively known as the Corpus Juris Civilis). This massive undertaking was directed by a commission spearheaded by the prominent jurist Tribonian, and the resulting compilation serves as the primary surviving source for classical Roman law.

2:35:20supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

In 626 AD, Constantinople was besieged by a joint force of Persians and Avars while Emperor Heraclius was campaigning in the East.

"or even besieging his capital in 626, the the Persians and the Avars, these people from this nomadic warrior group that settled in roughly modern Hungary, they're besieging Constantinople." (said at 2:35:20)

Historical scholarship confirms that in 626 AD, Constantinople was besieged by a joint coalition of Avars (a nomadic Eurasian group centered in the Carpathian/Pannonian Basin, roughly modern Hungary) and Sasanian Persians while Emperor Heraclius was away campaigning in the East.

2:39:38supportedmoderateThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

The Byzantine Empire used Greek fire against Rus/Viking naval attacks on Constantinople in the 940s and the 1040s.

"They used it against Vikings, too. This is much later. So once the Vikings show up, like when they would attack Constantinople in the 940s, then again in the 1040s, yeah, the Romans used Greek fire fleets to just incinerate them." (said at 2:39:38)

Historical records and scholarly analyses confirm that the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire deployed Greek fire against Rus (Scandinavian/Viking-Slavic) naval expeditions targeting Constantinople in both the 10th and 11th centuries. Major documented naval assaults occurred notably in 941 (under Prince Igor) and in 1043 (under Vladimir of Novgorod), where Byzantine naval forces utilized siphon-projected incendiary petroleum weaponry ('Greek fire') to destroy the attacking fleets.

2:44:02supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

The first pandemic of bubonic plague (Plague of Justinian) persisted intermittently for approximately two centuries across large parts of the world.

"So, this is a bubonic plague, um which lasts, uh more or less, for two centuries. It comes in and it goes, and it's kind of endemic to large parts of the world." (said at 2:44:02)

The first plague pandemic, which began with the Plague of Justinian in 541 CE, persisted in recurrent waves across the Mediterranean basin and surrounding regions until approximately 750 CE, spanning approximately two centuries. Genomic analyses of ancient DNA from burial sites across Europe and the Middle East confirm that *Yersinia pestis* caused these intermittent outbreaks during this roughly 200-year period.

2:44:06supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

The pathogen responsible for the Plague of Justinian (beginning in 541 AD) was Yersinia pestis, as confirmed by modern pathogen isolation.

"541 is when it starts to break out in the empire, in Constantinople, and other cities, and it spreads. There's been a lot of debate about this recently, um cuz now we've actually isolated the pathogen. It's Yersinia pestis, like, we know this." (said at 2:44:06)

Ancient genomic analysis and palaeomicrobiological studies have repeatedly confirmed that Yersinia pestis was the causative pathogen of the Plague of Justinian (the First Pandemic, beginning in 541 AD). Genomic sequencing of ancient DNA extracted from historical human burial remains in Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean confirmed distinct Yersinia pestis lineages associated with the 6th-century pandemic.

2:46:50supportedmoderateThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Byzantine forces deployed Greek fire in hand grenade form using clay containers with fuses, primarily targeting wooden siege engines.

"They even had it in a hand grenade form. This is a real thing... So it's like a clay container with the compound, and it has like some sort of fuse that you light on the outside and you throw it... It's most effective against things like siege engines." (said at 2:46:50)

Archaeological and historical evidence confirms that incendiary compounds in the medieval Near East and Byzantine sphere were deployed using hand-thrown ceramic and stoneware containers (commonly referred to in archaeology as sphero-conical or 'grenade' vessels). Chemical residue analyses from medieval sphero-conical vessels show traces of combustible, sulphur-, and nitrate-bearing compounds consistent with early grenade and incendiary formulations used against defensive positions, ships, and wooden siege structures.

3:36:05supportedmoderateThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

In the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, the army was the single largest expenditure of the state.

"So, in the context of the society I study, let's say the army, is the single largest expense, is doing pretty much what the emperors say that it's doing, which is protecting its subjects." (said at 3:36:05)

Historical and fiscal analyses of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) state demonstrate that military expenditures—including regular cash stipends (roga), provisioning, and defensive logistics—formed the largest single component of public expenditure and state budget allocations throughout the empire's history.

3:38:54supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Following the Vietnam War, the United States abandoned military conscription and transitioned to an all-volunteer professional military.

"Yep, but the same lesson was learned in, like, the Vietnam War. And that was such a disaster that essentially they had to switch to abandon the conscript army, switch to a professional army." (said at 3:38:54)

Following the Vietnam War, the United States ended military conscription in 1973 and transitioned to an All-Volunteer Force (AVF) professional military. Historical and defense policy analyses confirm that public opposition to the draft during the Vietnam War led to the Gates Commission recommendations and the subsequent abolition of conscription in favor of an all-volunteer active-duty force.

3:44:30supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

The hunter-gatherer period lasted for the vast majority of human history prior to the agricultural revolution.

"The first one being sort of hunter-gatherer period, which that lasted for the majority of human history so far, right? Then there's the agricultural revolution, basically." (said at 3:44:30)

Anthropological and archaeological evidence firmly establishes that foraging (hunting and gathering) was the predominant subsistence strategy for the vast majority of human evolutionary history. Anatomically modern humans emerged around 300,000 years ago, while the genus Homo extends back over two million years; in contrast, the transition to agriculture (the Neolithic Revolution) began only approximately 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. Consequently, pre-agricultural foraging accounts for roughly 95% to over 99% of human history.

5:02:39supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Following the defense of Constantinople during the second Arab siege, Leo III ruled for over twenty years and established the Isaurian dynasty with his son, despite the family not actually originating from Isauria.

"And went on to rule after that for another 20-some years. And his son continued. They formed a dynasty. We call it the Isaurian dynasty, though they were not from Isauria." (said at 5:02:39)

Historical scholarship confirms that Byzantine Emperor Leo III successfully defended Constantinople during the second Arab siege (717–718) and ruled for 24 years (717–741). He was succeeded by his son Constantine V (reigned 741–775), establishing what historiography conventionally calls the "Isaurian dynasty," even though Leo III did not originate from Isauria (he hailed from Germanikeia in Syria).

5:09:08supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Starting in 955 AD under new military leadership, the Byzantine Empire began reconquering territory in Cilicia, northern Syria, Cyprus, the Caucasus, and eventually Bulgaria.

"955, a new military leadership is appointed, and the Romans go conquering again, especially in Cilicia, northern Syria, and Cyprus and the Caucasus, and then eventually also Bulgaria." (said at 5:09:08)

Historical scholarship confirms that in 954–955 AD, under Emperor Constantine VII, a restructuring of Byzantine military leadership took place with the appointment of Nikephoros Phokas (later Emperor Nikephoros II) as Domestic of the Schools of the East. This heralded an era of major Byzantine offensive expansion and territorial recovery across the mid-to-late 10th and early 11th centuries, encompassing the reconquest of Cilicia (965), Cyprus (965), northern Syria (including Antioch in 969), territorial annexations in the Caucasus, and the eventual subjugation and annexation of Bulgaria (initiated in 971 and completed under Basil II).

5:13:55supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

The Macedonian dynasty ruled the Byzantine Empire for approximately two centuries.

"In particular, we're seeing the end of the Macedonian dynasty. This is a dynasty that had lasted for about two centuries." (said at 5:13:55)

Historical scholarship dates the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire from 867 CE (with the accession of Basil I) to 1056 CE (with the death of Empress Theodora), lasting approximately 189 years, or roughly two centuries.

5:15:25supportedmoderateThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

The Byzantine Empire lost control of Asia Minor to Turkish forces by approximately 1300 AD.

"They lose Asia Minor to the Turks by 1300, roughly." (said at 5:15:25)

Historical scholarship confirms that by approximately 1300 AD, the Byzantine Empire had lost effective control over the vast majority of Asia Minor (Anatolia) to various Turkish beyliks and emerging Ottoman forces, leaving only a few isolated fortresses and coastal towns in Byzantine hands before their final fall in the 14th century.

5:16:35supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Timur (Tamerlane) invaded from Central Asia, defeated the Ottoman Turks, and fragmented their empire around the turn of the 15th century.

"This is Timur, Tamerlane comes from Central Asia, trounces the Turks, breaks up their empire. So, they go into a cycle of, you know, rebuilding." (said at 5:16:35)

Historical records and historiographical consensus confirm that Timur (Tamerlane), campaigning from Central Asia, defeated the Ottoman forces led by Sultan Bayezid I at the Battle of Ankara in 1402. This defeat resulted in the fragmentation and dismemberment of the Ottoman realm, triggering the Ottoman Interregnum (1402–1413), during which Bayezid's sons fought a protracted civil war before the empire was reunited and rebuilt.

5:18:53supportedhighThe Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empi

Bulgaria was conquered by the Byzantine Empire in 1018 and regained independence through a rebellion in 1185.

"Bulgaria was conquered, right, in 1018. There's a couple of independentist movements, rebellions. Um, eventually one succeeds in 1185." (said at 5:18:53)

Historical scholarship confirms that the First Bulgarian Empire fell to the Byzantine Empire in 1018 under Emperor Basil II. Following subsequent unsuccessful uprisings during the period of Byzantine rule, an anti-Byzantine rebellion led by the Asen brothers (the Asenevtsi) in 1185 successfully established the Second Bulgarian Empire.

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